Ghazal Aur Asr-e-jadeed

One critic has observed that poetry holds very little significance for the modern world, and that contemporary humanity cares little for it. To refute this, one could present reams of poetry that continue to be composed daily in every corner of the globe. It is undeniable that a vast mountain of poetry has accumulated over the last twenty-five to thirty years. This can be seen as proof that both the essence of poetry and the taste for it still survive in the world. However, if we look closely and judge fairly, we must admit that the bulk of the poetry produced over the past quarter-century might certainly interest an anthologist, but it offers neither a new or lasting pleasure to the critic, nor any enduring enjoyment to the common reader.

Some argue that this does not indicate a flaw in poetry itself. Rather, it merely proves that the new complexities of modern life have left us deeply distracted and overwhelmed. We no longer have the leisure to spend a few peaceful, unhurried moments in the pursuits of passion, nor can we demonstrate our taste for beholding beauty. While this is not entirely wrong, it is not the whole truth either. We lack a deep interest in the literary innovations of our era, particularly its poetic achievements. One reason for this is undoubtedly, as the poet says:

Fursat kahan ke teri tamanna kare koi

[Where is the leisure to even long for you?]

But beyond this, there is another, more fundamental and significant reason. On the one hand, poetry has felt the need to discard old traditions, concepts, and standards, deeming them obsolete or inadequate. On the other hand, it has not yet managed to fully align or harmonize itself with the trends and demands of the contemporary age.

On the level of action and endeavor, we manage to adapt to life's new shifts; our practical, external lives harmonize with new environments with relative ease. However, on the level of thought and imagination, the ghost of the past clings to us imperceptibly for much longer. Ancient traditions and forms repeatedly attempt to reassert their faltering dominance under various guises, often without our even realizing it. The result is a state of contradiction and chaos that persists in any new era—a rift between our practical lives and our imaginative lives—which continues to generate all sorts of complexities in our existence as a whole. This is primarily why contemporary poetry either fails to move us at all, or, if it does, leaves us feeling unfulfilled. The conservative class remains indifferent to it because it does not meet their traditionalist standards. Meanwhile, the progressives are dissatisfied with it because it does not adequately resonate with the new movements of modern life.

The emergence of new trends in Urdu poetry begins with the legacy of Hali and Azad; it was these two venerable figures who laid the foundation for modern Urdu poetry. Even those who dismiss Urdu poetry as entirely devoid of substance must admit that the modern nazm (poem), pioneered by Hali, Azad, and their circle, has progressed steadily and consistently since its inception. It has continuously expanded its horizons in terms of both content and style. Following Hali, Azad, and Ismail, poets like Iqbal, Chakbast, and Suroor Jahanabadi—and subsequently the current generation of nazm writers, with Josh occupying a central position—serve as clear proof that the Urdu nazm has steadfastly advanced, absorbing the new trends and possibilities of life along the way.

However, this claim can only be made regarding the specific genre of Urdu poetry categorized as the nazm. The Urdu ghazal has not managed to cultivate such diversity, nor has it aligned itself with the new expanses and possibilities of life to the extent that it should have. The difference between the modern ghazal and the classical ghazal is largely a matter of tone and style. Thematically, there is little discernible difference between the new and the old Urdu ghazal. The modern Urdu ghazal has certainly introduced considerable stylistic breadth to our poetry and offered some new psychological insights. Yet, on the whole, the prevailing tone of our ghazal remains rooted in the same luxury of sorrow that characterized the classical ghazal, perpetuating the traditional imagination of love and romantic poetry.

As a result, even today, the Urdu ghazal remains unacquainted with the new directions of life. When even the most revolutionary writer or poet enters the realm of the ghazal today, they begin to appear as a rather strange creature. Despite their best efforts, they cannot move beyond that passionate disposition which might best be described as lyric abandon. This disposition is certainly not devoid of emotional depth; it is, and always will be, necessary in life. But it is not everything.

If one considers the structure and form of the ghazal, one cannot help but acknowledge its expansive possibilities. Every couplet in a ghazal stands as an independent unit, encompassing a complete theme on its own. This means that, if we so choose, we can concisely and suggestively express as many diverse and distinct themes in a single ghazal as there are couplets within it. Why, then, must every couplet be composed to the tune of love and its associated tropes? Why not make these couplets vehicles for the other trends and problems of life? By presenting life's crucial matters in the form of aphorisms within ghazal couplets, a great service could be rendered to human existence. Yet, one wonders at what ill-fated hour the lexicon of the ghazal was first established, such that even today, the very definition of the ghazal is understood merely as conversing with a woman.

I am not an opponent of the ghazal, nor am I among those who constantly parrot the notion that the ghazal has already given us all it had to offer, that it is now obsolete, and that its era has passed. I consider the ghazal and taghazzul (lyricism) to be synonymous with poetry itself. I maintain that in any long nazm, the only couplets we memorize effortlessly and unintentionally are those that possess a relatively higher degree of this lyrical quality. Lyricism is a demand of human nature that will always be fulfilled and will endure forever.

I do not mean to imply that the ghazal has given us nothing. It has given us a great deal and has immensely enriched our literature. A surface-level proof of this is that of all the couplets that have become proverbial and are on the lips of the elite and the commoners alike, at least ninety-five percent belong to the ghazal. This is no ordinary achievement; it is a distinguishing characteristic of the ghazal that, in and of itself, will ensure its immortality. That is to say, every couplet of a ghazal possesses an inherent, natural capacity to be remembered. Furthermore, the rich symbolism and allusions found in Urdu poetry are entirely thanks to the ghazal.

The role the ghazal has played in the cultivation and refinement of our poetry is unparalleled; no other poetic genre has achieved this, nor could it have. It was the ghazal alone that transformed hundreds of individual concepts into symbols and allegories, infusing them with such cosmic vastness that today, terms like the rose and the nightingale, or the cypress and the dove, have transcended the narrow confines of their literal meanings to encompass the entirety of human experience. Similarly, the imagery of wine and the goblet has acquired the capacity to be used even in discourses concerning the divine vision of Truth.

This point should be particularly noted by those who thoughtlessly claim that the Urdu ghazal contains nothing beyond the rose and the nightingale, or wine and the goblet. It is precisely through the imagery of the rose and the nightingale and wine and the goblet that the ghazal achieves the symbolic and allusive depth that T. S. Eliot refers to as the Objective Correlative. The ghazal has introduced a profound symbolism and a universal allegorism into Urdu poetry, the likes of which can scarcely be found in the poetry of any other language.

However, despite all these merits, we must also acknowledge certain shortcomings of the Urdu ghazal. First and foremost, it has kept the scope of its concepts, impressions, representations, and imagination highly restricted. Consequently, an exhausting monotony has crept into its styles and traditions, leaving very little room for diversity. As a result, one can now sense signs not merely of decline, but of outright stagnation within the atmosphere of the modern Urdu ghazal. The second deficiency is that, in terms of subject matter and content, the ghazal has thus far remained devoid of social consciousness and the realities of everyday human life. The third unpleasant yet undeniable reality is that the contemporary Urdu ghazal lacks the vigor and vitality found in the works of the classical masters, rendering it somewhat lifeless.

Thus far, we have discussed the Urdu ghazal in its totality. Now, we wish to examine the ghazal poets of our era individually, in order to accurately assess the current standing of the Urdu ghazal and determine its future trajectory. To do this, we need not look beyond the circle of living poets who are actively composing ghazals today. Fortunately, last year the literary journal Nigar dedicated its annual issue entirely to the works of contemporary Urdu ghazal poets. Not only is this a unique annual issue of its kind, but no such anthology has ever been published before. The poets themselves selected their verses and submitted them alongside brief biographical sketches, providing us with a fleeting glimpse of their personalities alongside their poetry. A poet's faculty for criticism and selection is rarely as potent or acute as their capacity for imagination and creation, and they often falter when selecting their own verses. This is especially true when curating their own work, where they are prone to various self-deceptions. Such misjudgments are occasionally visible in this annual issue of Nigar as well, yet they do not diminish its significance. With this collection before us, we can confidently offer an assessment of the contemporary Urdu ghazal.

Among all the poets currently composing ghazals in Urdu, the first name that comes to mind is Hasrat Mohani. It is often pointed out that there are living ghazal poets who are older and more experienced than Hasrat. While this is true, the distinction between Hasrat and these other elder poets is that Hasrat is not merely the last great monument of a grand classical tradition; he is also the pioneer of whatever nominal traces of a modern movement exist in the Urdu ghazal today. The new generation of the Urdu ghazal begins with Hasrat. In the history of the Urdu ghazal, Hasrat occupies a transitional space between the classical and the modern. In this regard, it would be quite fitting to compare him to the renowned English poet Robert Bridges. However, his poetry exhibits none of the decline, instability, or hesitation that typically characterizes a transitional era, and from which the work of a transitional figure is rarely exempt.

When Hasrat began his poetic journey, the literary landscape was entirely dominated by Ameer and Dagh. They were being imitated in every corner, and no new possibilities seemed to exist for the Urdu ghazal. It felt as though our ghazal had exhausted all its greatest potential, leaving room only for decline. It was in this milieu that Hasrat’s voice first reached our ears, bringing with it the sensation that a fresh wave of life had somehow entered the Urdu ghazal, infusing it with renewed vitality.

It is exceedingly difficult to define Hasrat’s lyricism or to confine it to a single label. This is because it embodies the essence of the Persian verse: The beloved possesses many charms that have no name. In this context, Niaz’s observation seems remarkably accurate: In India today, Hasrat is the only poet whose verses can be praised in no other way but through silence. The truth is that, despite being the vanguard of the modern Urdu ghazal and possessing a keen awareness of contemporary trends, Hasrat cultivated his poetic sensibilities by studying those prophets of the ghazal who made the Urdu ghazal what it is today.

In Hasrat’s poetry, his innate creative genius merges with the finest elements of the classical masters to produce a remarkably complete and mature harmony—one that cannot be replicated. Through his master Tasleem, he traces his poetic lineage back to the school of Momin. However, this is merely a formal affiliation. In reality, the distinct styles of Mir, Mushafi, Jur'at, and Momin blend seamlessly with Hasrat’s own unique voice, forming the very alchemy of his lyricism.

Yet, it would be a grave error to dismiss Hasrat as a mere imitator. His eclectic lyricism is an entirely novel phenomenon; it is neither born of imitation, nor can it be imitated. This is why every ghazal poet of the modern generation has been influenced by Hasrat, whether consciously or unconsciously, yet none has been able to replicate his style.

Kat gai ehtiyat-e-ishq mein umr

Hum se izhaar-e-muddaa na hua

[A lifetime was spent in the cautions of love;

Yet, I could never express my heart's desire.]

Tum jafa-kaar the karam na kiya

Main wafa-daar tha khafa na hua

[You were cruel, and showed no grace;

I was loyal, and took no offense.]

Shauq jab hadd se guzar jaye toh hota hai yahi

Warna hum aur karam-e-yaar ki parwa na karein

[This is what happens when longing crosses all bounds;

Otherwise, how could I ever be indifferent to the beloved's grace?]

Haal khul jayega betaabi-e-dil ka Hasrat

Baar baar aap unhein shauq se dekha na karein

[The restless state of your heart will be exposed, Hasrat;

Do not gaze at them so longingly, time and again.]

Aap ka shauq bhi toh ab dil mein

Aap ki yaad ke siwa na raha

[Even the longing for you in my heart,

Has now been reduced to nothing but your memory.]

Aarzoo teri barqaraar rahi

Dil ka kya raha raha na raha

[The desire for you remained steadfast;

As for the heart, it matters not if it survived or perished.]

Raah-o-rasm-e-wafa woh bhool gaye

Ab humein bhi koi gila na raha

[They have forgotten the ways and customs of loyalty;

Now, I too have no complaints left.]

Kuch samajh mein nahi aata ke yeh kya hai Hasrat

Un se mil kar bhi na izhaar-e-tamanna karna

[I cannot comprehend what this is, Hasrat;

To meet them, and still not express my desires.]

Ya humari hi yeh qismat hai ke mahroom hain hum

Ya magar un ki mohabbat ka nateeja hai yahi

[Either it is my fate alone to remain deprived,

Or perhaps this is simply the inevitable result of loving them.]

Sab se shokhi hai ek humein se haya

Ae fareb-e-nigaah-e-yaar yeh kya

[Playful with everyone, yet modest only with me;

O deceptive glance of the beloved, what is this?]

Kisi par mit ke reh jaata hai Hasrat

Humein kya kaam umr-e-jawedaan se

[One simply perishes for someone, Hasrat;

What use do I have for eternal life?]

Hasrat jafa-e-yaar ko samjha jo tu wafa

Aaeen-e-ishtiyaaq mein yeh bhi rawa hai kya

[Hasrat, you mistook the beloved's cruelty for loyalty;

Is this, too, permissible in the laws of longing?]

These couplets create the impression that the poet has traversed all the stages of the consciousness of beauty and love, and has now developed a sage-like detachment. Restraint and balance, confidence and contentment, a serious and unruffled demeanor, and a simultaneous sense of connection and detachment—these have nothing to do with the passivity of mysticism or asceticism, but rather represent the true and ultimate pinnacle of human perception and insight. These are the impressions that Hasrat’s ghazals leave on anyone who possesses a refined taste for the form, and who has not become a poetry critic merely on the strength of extensive and voluminous reading.

Finally, what is worth remembering about Hasrat is that in the history of the Urdu ghazal, he is the first poet whose work, despite possessing all the traditional characteristics and essential elements of the form, does not induce despair. His poetic philosophy cannot in any way be termed pessimistic, even though his couplets contain a highly mature and profound pathos that often resembles the tone of Mir. Hasrat’s poetry belongs to a realm where sorrow and joy seem like childish concepts, where a smile breaks across the face just as tears come to the eyes, and where tears well up even as one smiles.

The new styles and rhythms that the Urdu ghazal acquired from Aziz are unprecedented additions of their kind, and their significance can never be denied. He introduced a depth of meaning to the ghazal that also holds a memorable status. Yet, one cannot help but feel while reading his ghazals as though there is an unbearably long delay in the lifting and departure of a funeral procession. Mahshar is also a poet of this school, but his elegiac tone is somewhat more restrained, even though, as an impactful and moving force, he falls short of Aziz’s stature.

It was Safi and Saqib who tempered Aziz’s elegiac melody, which had become entirely unrestrained. Safi cast a veil of restraint and self-possession over his own mournful style, introducing a tendency for thought and reflection into his grief. Furthermore, his contribution to balancing, refining, and elevating the language and style of the ghazal is even greater than that of Aziz.

Saqib’s ghazal poetry diverged even further from the Azizia School. His work lacks both the impassioned spontaneity and the emotional warmth that are the defining characteristics of Safi and his other contemporaries. However, beneath the veil of beauty and love and their traditional motifs, we find such profound hints that we are forced to pause and reflect in silence. It is a mistake to consider Saqib merely a poet of beauty and love. He used beauty and love as an allegory for life, and the true subject of his poetry is the vicissitudes of life.

Whatever the stature of Aziz and Safi as the founders of a distinct school and as the pioneers or proponents of new styles and forms, and however superior they may be to Saqib as masters of the craft, I believe it is through Saqib’s ghazals that we first sense the emergence of a new psychology for a new era. Like the work of most of his contemporaries, Saqib’s poetry is also a poetry of sorrow. Yet, observing its temperament instills in us a fresh energy and audacity; we not only become capable of enduring the sorrow, but we also begin to feel a subtle tremor of earnest defiance and rebellion within ourselves.

Restraint, self-possession, a profound sobriety, and a detached manner—these are the defining traits writ large across Saqib’s work. Consider the following couplets selected at random:

Yeh gawara na kiya dil ne keh mangoon toh milay

Warna saqi ko pilanay mein kuch inkar na tha

[My heart could not bear to receive only by asking,

Otherwise, the cupbearer had no objection to pouring the wine.]

Jamal-e-shama kisi ko, kisi ko jalwa-e-gul

Woh ek main hoon jisay koi khoon baha na mila

[Some were granted the beauty of the candle, others the splendor of the rose,

I am the only one who received no recompense for my spilled blood.]

Sar charhaya main ne chun chun kar khas-o-khashak ko

Bagh ke tinkay thay woh jin ka nasheman naam tha

[I elevated the status of twigs and straw by gathering them one by one,

What was called a nest was merely the scattered twigs of the garden.]

Chal ae humdam zara saaz-e-tarab ki chhair bhi sun lein

Agar dil baith jaye ga toh uth jayein ge mehfil se

[Come, my friend, let us also listen to the strumming of the lute of joy,

If the heart sinks, we shall simply rise and leave the gathering.]

Yeh aashiyana-e-sitam chaman mein ho toh khoob ho

Yeh ji mein hai keh le uroon qafas toh apna ho chuka

[It would be wonderful if this nest of tyranny were in the garden,

I have a mind to fly away with it, for the cage has now become my own.]

Shaheed-e-gham ki laash par na sar jhuka kar roye

Woh aansuon ko kya kare jo munh lahoo se dho chuka

[Do not bow your head and weep over the corpse of the martyr of grief,

What use are tears to one who has already washed his face with blood?]

Bazm-e-rangeen mein teri zikr-e-gham aaya toh sahi

Khush rahay chhairnay wala meray afsanay ka

[At least the mention of my sorrow was brought up in your colorful gathering,

May the one who sparked the tale of my grief remain happy.]

Bohat si umar mita kar jisay banaya tha

Makaan woh jal gaya thori si roshni ke liye

[The house that was built by consuming a lifetime,

Burned down just to provide a little bit of light.]

Tamam bazm mein chhaya hua hai sannata

Chhira tha qissa-e-dil un ki dillagi ke liye

[A profound silence has fallen over the entire gathering,

The tale of the heart was started merely for their amusement.]

Shab-e-gham aa gayi jalnay ka phir paigham aata hai

Libas-e-aatishin pehnay chiragh-e-shaam aata hai

[The night of sorrow has arrived, bringing again the message to burn,

Wearing a garment of fire, the evening lamp arrives.]

Saqib’s poetry is devoid of intense rapture, which is inevitable; when a person becomes self-aware of their own rapture, its intensity naturally begins to wane. It would be more appropriate to call Saqib a poet of the consciousness of rapture, and searching for states of intense ecstasy in his work would be somewhat misplaced.

Arzoo Lakhnavi should also be considered a poet of this cohort. He is a poetic disciple of Jalal Lakhnavi and appears to be significantly influenced by both Jalal and Ta’ashshuq. The public is already well-acquainted with two of his poetry collections, Fughan-e-Arzoo and Sureeli Bansuri. A study of these works reveals him to be a masterful artist; not only does he command language and idiom, but he is also intimately familiar with the intricacies and nuances of prosody, knowing exactly how to weave rhythm into a verse. There is hardly a single couplet of his that fails to captivate the reader through its sheer musicality alone, and this musicality possesses an inherent dramatic quality.

As far as his overall language and mode of expression are concerned, Arzoo Lakhnavi appears quite close to the Delhi School of the ghazal. This is perhaps the result of his apprenticeship under Jalal. However, his pathos carries an elegiac undertone, which is the true inheritance of the Lucknow School of lyricism. The stylistic innovations that Arzoo Lakhnavi introduced to the Urdu ghazal hold enduring value. In particular, by writing Sureeli Bansuri, he proved that one can express one's emotions and perceptions in a language that is entirely accessible and colloquial without ever becoming crude.

It is true that this language and style are not suited for articulating profound philosophical thoughts about life. But then again, one could argue that Arzoo Lakhnavi is not a poet of complex ideas, nor is his style tailored for philosophical poetry. However, when it comes to everyday human emotions, psychology, and the representation of human experience, it is difficult to imagine a style more captivating and closer to the common people than his.

Ultimately, I believe that Arzoo Lakhnavi’s poetry, and Sureeli Bansuri in particular, points toward a new direction in the stylistic evolution of Urdu poetry—one whose possibilities deserve to be thoroughly explored. Consider a few of his couplets:

Rehnay do tasalli tum apni, dukh jheel chukay dil toot gaya

Ab haath malalay se hota hai kya jab haath se nawak chhoot gaya

[Keep your consolations to yourself; the pain has been endured, the heart is broken,

What is the use of wringing hands now that the arrow has left the bow?]

Kha ke charkay hanso yeh baat hai aur

Arzoo ji hi jaanta hoga

[To laugh after suffering deep wounds is an entirely different matter,

O Arzoo, only the heart truly knows what it endures.]

Jo seenay mein dil hai toh baar-e-mohabbat

Uthay ya na uthay uthana paray ga

[If there is a heart in your chest, then the burden of love,

Whether you can bear it or not, you will have to carry it.]

Daf'atan tark-e-ta'alluq mein bhi ruswai hai

Uljhey daaman ko chhuraatey nahin jhatka de kar

[There is disgrace even in a sudden severing of ties;

One does not free a tangled hem with a violent jerk.]

Kis ne bheegey huey baalon se yeh jhatka paani

Jhoom ke aayi ghata toot ke barsa paani

[Who shook the water from their wet hair?

The dark clouds gathered and the rain poured down.]

Na us ko poochho ke kis liye tha yeh ro ke hansna yeh hans ke rona

Ik an-kahi dukh bhari kahani dikha di tum ko ulat palat kar

[Do not ask the reason behind this laughing through tears, and crying through laughter;

I have laid bare before you an untold, sorrowful tale in all its facets.]

Keh ke yeh aur kuchh kaha na gaya

Ke hamein aap se shikayat hai

[After saying this, nothing more could be said:

I have a complaint against you.]

Mo'amma ban gaya raaz-e-mohabbat Arzoo yun hi

Woh mujh se poochhtey jhijhkey mujhe kehtey hijaab aaya

[The secret of love became an enigma just like this, O Arzoo:

They hesitated to ask me, and I felt too shy to speak.]

Chahat ki har baat ulti mat ulti rona ulta

Jitna masoso ji aur munde boondon ki nadi beh jaye

[Every aspect of love is contradictory, its logic is inverted, its weeping is reversed;

The more you suppress the heart, the more a river of tears flows.]

Jisey Arzoo koi taakey na chheeney

Mujhe raaj gaddi hai woh mirg chhaala

[That which no one covets or snatches away, O Arzoo;

To me, that ascetic's deer-skin is a royal throne.]

Taara toota sab ne dekha yeh na dekha ek ne bhi

Kis ki aankh se tapka aansoo kis ka sahara chhoot gaya

[Everyone saw the falling star, but not a single person saw:

Whose eye shed a tear, whose support was lost.]

Belonging to this same era and more or less the same literary circle, we also encounter a few poets who possess tremendous power in their own right. They deserve to be called masters of their craft, and indeed, they are recognized as such. However, they lack the kind of dynamic force necessary to play a role in shaping the future. In other words, their poetry is not, from any perspective, tendentious.

Take Bekhud Dehlvi or Nooh Narvi, for example. Both are disciples of Daagh, the shining stars of their literary circle, and its last great monuments. One must, in any case, acknowledge their seasoned expertise and masterful skill. If one wishes to savor the delights of language, idiom, and everyday colloquialisms, one must still turn to the poetry of these venerable figures. But what can be done about the fact that our inclinations and standards of aesthetic pleasure have now changed? When reading their poetry, we cannot help but feel that these are the final, fading vibrations of a voice that fell silent a long time ago. The same holds true for the poetry of those who belong to the literary lineage of Ameer Minai and can be considered the last torchbearers of the traditional Lucknow school.

Jaleel is a master of the ghazal's traditional cadence. Polished language and a soft, gentle musicality are the distinguishing features of his poetry that have made him so widely popular.

In the work of Dil Shahjahanpuri, alongside some of the prominent, general characteristics of Ameer's school, there is a distinct pathos and a heart-melting quality. This quality carries a sense of dignity and poise, and appears to be entirely his own unique contribution.

Amarnath Sahir possesses a distinct style among the poets of the older generation. In terms of language and diction, he is influenced by the Delhi school, and he successfully represents the traditional concept of mystical lyricism.

Dattatreya Kaifi’s poetry is highly scholarly. He possesses the kind of deep affinity for the Urdu language that is essential for a linguistic researcher. However, his verses entirely lack that overwhelming sense of intoxication (kaif) which is the true soul of poetry. We can safely say that he deserves to be called a scholar rather than a poet. The presidency of mushairas has become very cheap these days. Any random person is appointed as the president of a mushaira, and the prestige of the way of the discerning has been lost. Were this not the case, I would not hesitate to say that Dattatreya Kaifi is far more suited to presiding over mushairas than to composing poetry.

Wahshat Kalkatvi, despite belonging to the old and traditional school, reveals a highly individual tone in his poetry. The subtle Persian element in his work is a distinct feature that, while preserving the traditional temperament of the ghazal, elevates his poetry above the ordinary level. He himself admits to following in the footsteps of Ghalib, a fact that Maulana Hali also observed and acknowledged.

The most prominent and palpable characteristic of Wahshat’s poetry is a deeply ingrained emotional balance, coupled with a mystic restraint and solemnity in his expression. However, regardless of the individual stature these poets hold, it cannot be denied that they are relics of a bygone era and are now fading into legend.

In this same vein, we also encounter a few poets who are tethered to the classical era but strive to incorporate symbols of the modern age into their verses—and they have succeeded in doing so. However, because the driving force behind their poetry is not real life itself, but rather poetry—specifically, the works of the classical masters—the echoes of their extensive reading are clearly felt in their poetic inspirations. This is precisely why these individuals, despite being counted among good poets, lack any distinct individuality.

Abdul Bari Aasi belongs to this very group. For some unknown reason, Aasi became famous as a Lakhnavi (from Lucknow), which he is neither by birth nor by literary inclination. He is an exceptionally well-read individual. There is scarcely a poet, classical or modern, whose work Aasi has not studied and from whom he has not drawn benefit, following the principle of take what is pure. Yet, the overall cadence of his poetry remains quite close to the Delhi school. Niyaz Sahib used the term daman-dar (expansive or encompassing) to describe his poetry. In my opinion, a more comprehensive word could not be found for Aasi’s work. This is not merely because he commands a sizable following of students, but because the eclectic and imitative variety found in both his themes and his diction has truly broadened the canvas of his poetry. His ghazals lack that total surrender and self-forgetfulness which is the very soul of lyricism. Nevertheless, a steady and composed pathos permeates his verses, which is certainly not devoid of impact. Aasi is not only a poet but also a true connoisseur of verse, possessing strong critical acumen.

Mirza Jafar Ali Khan Asar is the most prominent figure in this group. His poetic sensibilities were nurtured by the finest elements of the classical masters' works. Although he is a disciple of Aziz, he is most profoundly influenced by the classical masters Mir and Aatish. He is also a critic, and his critical equilibrium revives the memory of Shefta; this very balance and poise form the soul of his own poetry. His verses are entirely free from cheap emotionalism and frivolous romantic banter (mo'amla-bandi). The precise and apt use of words, the spontaneous flow of idioms and phrases, an effortless naturalness, lofty imagination, and a dignified tone—these are the characteristics that distinguish his poetry. It would not be wrong to say that there is nothing in Asar’s work that does not reflect a deeply refined aesthetic taste. Despite all these merits, his poetry lacks that intoxicating absorption which captures and absorbs the reader. His poetry, while natural, ultimately feels like bookish poetry. His verses leave an impression on the heart akin to the hazy memories of a bygone era. The following couplets are worth noting:

Woh guzra idhar se jo begana-waar

Chiragh-e-lahad jhilmilaaney laga

[When he passed by this way like a stranger;

The lamp on my grave began to flicker.]

Jin khayalaat se ho jaati hai wahshat dooni

Kuchh unhi se dil-e-deewana behaltey dekha

[The very thoughts that double my madness;

I have seen this crazy heart find solace in them.]

Hum ne ro ro ke raat kaati hai

Aansuon par yeh rang tab aaya

[I have spent the night weeping continuously;

Only then did my tears acquire this hue.]

Faryaad ka shunwa koi nahin bekas ka sahara koi nahin

Kuchh dekh liya is duniya mein kuchh hashr mein dekha jayega

[There is no one to hear my plea, no support for the helpless;

I have seen some of it in this world, the rest will be seen on the Day of Judgment.]

Aaj kuch meherban hai sayyad

Kya nasheman bhi ho gaya barbad

[The hunter seems somewhat kind today

Has the nest, too, been destroyed?]

Phir hum kahan, kahan tum, jee bhar ke dekhne do

Allah kitni muddat hum tum juda rahe hain

[Who knows where we will be, let me look at you to my heart's content

Oh God, for how long have we remained apart.]

Woh khumar-alood aankhein dekh kar

Mauj-e-mai lene lagi angraiyan

[Seeing those intoxication-filled eyes

The wave of wine began to stretch and awaken.]

Zindagi aur zindagi ki yaadgaar

Parda aur parde pe kuch parchaiyan

[Life, and the memorial of life

A screen, and some shadows upon the screen.]

Zahoor-e-ishq haqeeqat taraz tha warna

Yeh dilkashi kahin daar-o-rasan mein aati hai

[The manifestation of love revealed the truth, otherwise

Does the gallows and the noose ever hold such allure?]

Yeh jald jald badalta hua zamana hai

Ke aaj hai jo haqeeqat woh kal fasana hai

[This is a rapidly changing world

What is reality today will be a fable tomorrow.]

Na jaane baat yeh kya hai tumhein jis din se dekha hai

Meri nazron mein duniya bhar haseen maloom hoti hai

[I know not what it is, but since the day I saw you

The whole world appears beautiful to my eyes.]

Chal gaya us nigah ka jadoo

Keh gaye dil ki baat kya kahiye

[The magic of that glance has worked its spell

They spoke the heart's desire, what more can be said?]

In the gathering of the modern Urdu ghazal, Seemab Akbarabadi is a figure who, by virtue of his age, education, upbringing, and personal temperament, belongs to a bygone era. However, he possesses an anxious awareness of the new trends of the modern age and attempts to compose couplets in a modern style. His verses also blend quite comfortably into the modern ghazal. In this regard, his poetry manages to avoid staleness and obsolescence, but it seems as though he has recognized the mood of the times and is trying to keep pace with it, yet his steps are faltering. His poetry does not possess any distinct individual characteristic. No matter how large the number of his formal students may be, he has not left an effective or lasting impact on the modern generation. He himself is a highly skilled poet and faces absolutely no difficulty in composing verse. A substantial number of good couplets can be found in his work. However, they do not reveal any particular aesthetic insight or intuitive impact.

Influenced by his apprenticeship under Hali, Azad Ansari laid the foundation for an entirely new style in the Urdu ghazal. However, because his poetry is completely devoid of that subtle madness without which the ghazal has thus far been impossible, no one was inclined to follow his example. Nevertheless, he is a highly masterful ghazal poet in his own unique style. The various ways he has enhanced the charm and meaning of his couplets through the repetition of words and phrases is a skill entirely his own. Azad is the sole poet of his particular style. Had there been any emotional intensity or philosophical insight in his work, he would have proven to be an influential force in the modern Urdu ghazal today. But perhaps this style of his simply could not bear the weight of any kind of depth or intensity.

After Hasrat and Aziz, the poet who played the greatest role in determining the direction of the modern Urdu ghazal is Fani Badayuni, who, until just a few weeks ago, was still among the living. Fani was perhaps not formally anyone's student; he belongs to those who make their own natural ingenuity their guide. Yet, his lyrical tone resembles that of Aziz Lakhnavi to a certain extent. However, the pathos and sorrow found in Fani's work bear not even a distant relation to the elegiac tone that seems to dominate the entire atmosphere of Aziz's poetry. There is certainly a sadness in Fani's ghazals, but this sadness is deep and contemplative.

After Ghalib, if we set Iqbal aside for a moment, Fani is the first poet in the Urdu ghazal whose poetry evokes a sense of philosophical insight from beginning to end. In his work, emotions and experiences reach us only after passing through the realm of thought and contemplation, and his empathy feels to us like the empathy of a philosopher or a mystic. We can call Fani's lyricism a successful synthesis of Mir and Ghalib.

Fani can be compared to the famous melancholic English poet A.E. Housman. The grief and despair in Fani's ghazals represent a metaphysical concept, and his pessimism maintains a philosophical balance. If Fani is compared to Aziz or any other famous melancholic ghazal poet in Urdu, we will sense in Fani's tone a masculine endurance and a self-respecting detachment that is almost entirely absent in others. The elevated tone of perception and thought in Fani's poetry certainly provided a new expansiveness to the modern Urdu ghazal, and for a considerable time, the new generation of the Urdu ghazal continued to explore this new arena.

Despite the fact that Fani is a philosophical poet—and keen observation and philosophical depth are the general distinguishing features of his poetry—his language and style do not exhibit any of the complexity or strangeness that usually arises naturally in such poetry. Fani's language, while serious and contemplative, is also exceedingly pure and captivating. Even where he has introduced stylistic innovations, he has not allowed any sense of alienation to creep in. The selection and arrangement of words in Fani's work are so melodious that the mind shifts to the semantic implications of the couplet only later; first, its sorrowful musicality draws us in.

The greatest shortcoming in Fani's poetry is that his thematic scope is narrow. He does not cast his gaze upon every aspect of life. The feelings of love, death, and darkness overshadow the universe of his poetry to such an extent that it seems life is nothing but these things. Because of this, an exhausting monotony has emerged in his poetry. The overall effect of Fani's poetry is a kind of drowsiness, but it is a profoundly eloquent and intoxicating drowsiness. A few couplets are presented here as examples:

Har shakh har shajar se na thi aashiyan ko laag

Har shakh har shajar pe mera aashiyan na tha

[My nest did not have an affinity with every branch and every tree

My nest was not built upon every branch and every tree.]

Tu ne karam kiya toh ba-unwan-e-ranj-e-zeest

Gham bhi mujhe diya toh gham-e-jawedan na tha

[When You bestowed grace, it was under the guise of life's sorrow

Even when You gave me grief, it was not an eternal grief.]

Mazaq-e-talkh pasandi na pooch is dil ka

Baghair marg jise zeest ka maza na mila

[Do not ask about this heart's taste for bitterness

Which found no joy in life without the presence of death.]

Woh namurad-e-ajal bazm-e-yaar mein bhi nahi

Yahan bhi Fani-e-awara ka pata na mila

[That wretch denied by death is not even in the beloved's gathering

Even here, the wandering Fani could not be found.]

Woh hai mukhtar saza de ke jaza de Fani

Do ghari hosh mein aane ke gunehgar hain hum

[He is the absolute master, whether He punishes or rewards, O Fani

I am only guilty of coming to my senses for a fleeting moment.]

Ijaz-e-gunah ke dam tak hain ismat-e-kamil ke jalwe

Pasti hai toh bulandi hai raaz-e-bulandi pasti hai

[The manifestations of perfect purity exist only as long as the helplessness of sin

If there is lowness, there is highness; the secret of highness is lowness.]

Aansu the so khushk hue jee hai ke umda aata hai

Dil pe ghata si chhayi hai khulti hai na barasti hai

[The tears have dried up, yet the heart continues to swell

A cloud hangs over the heart; it neither clears nor rains.]

Tujhe khabar hai tere teer-e-bepanah ki khair

Bohat dinon se dil-e-natawan nahi milta

[Do you know? May your relentless arrow be well

For many days now, my feeble heart cannot be found.]

Ik muamma hai samajhne ka na samjhane ka

Zindagi kahe ko hai khwab hai deewane ka

[It is an enigma, neither to be understood nor explained

Why call it life? It is but the dream of a madman.]

Har nafas umr-e-guzishta ki hai mayyat Fani

Zindagi naam hai mar mar ke jiye jaane ka

[Every breath is the corpse of the life that has passed, O Fani

Life is simply the name of living by dying over and over.]

Hum hain aur azm-e-aashiyan yaani

Reh gayi door taqat-e-parwaz

[Here I am, with the resolve to build a nest, meaning

The strength to fly has been left far behind.]

Hai ke Fani nahi hai kya kehte

Raaz hai be-niyaz-e-mahram-e-raaz

[Does he exist or not, O Fani, what could one say?

The secret is indifferent to the keeper of the secret.]

Har muzhda-e-nigah ghalat jalwa khud-fareb

Aalam daleel-e-gumrahi-e-chashm-o-gosh tha

[Every glad tiding of the gaze was false, the manifestation a self-deception

The world was merely proof of the delusion of the eyes and ears.]

Kisi ki kashti teh-e-gardaab-e-fana aa pohanchi

Shor-e-labbaik jo Fani lab-e-sahil se utha

[Someone's boat has reached the bottom of the whirlpool of annihilation

As the cry of I am here arose from the shore, O Fani.]

Hum ko marna bhi muyassar nahi jeene ke baghair

Maut ne umr-e-do-roza ka bahana chaha

[Even death is not available to us without first living

Death required the excuse of this fleeting, two-day life.]

Sukoon-e-khatir-e-bulbul hai iztirab-e-bahaar

Na mauj-e-boo-e-gul uthti na aashiyan hota

[The peace of the nightingale's heart lies in the restlessness of spring

Had the wave of the rose's fragrance not risen, there would be no nest.]

Zindagi khud kya hai Fani yeh toh kya kahiye magar

Maut kehte hain jise woh zindagi ka hosh hai

[What life itself is, O Fani, what can one say, but

What they call death is actually the awakening of life.]

Nahi maloom raah-e-shauq mein bhi hai koi manzil

Jahan thak kar nazar thehre wahin maloom hoti hai

[I do not know if there is any destination on the path of desire

Wherever the tired gaze comes to rest, that seems to be it.]

Mahshar mein sabr-e-dost se talib hoon daad ka

Aaya hoon ikhtiyar ki tohmat liye hue

[On the Day of Judgment, I seek justice from the patience of the Friend

I have arrived bearing the false accusation of free will.]

Maujon ki siyasat se manoos na ho Fani

Gardaab ki har teh mein sahil nazar aata hai

[Do not become accustomed to the politics of the waves, O Fani / In every depth of the whirlpool, the shore is visible.]

Main ne Fani doobte dekhi hai nabz-e-kainat

Jab mizaj-e-dost kuch barham nazar aaya mujhe

[I have seen the pulse of the universe sinking, O Fani / Whenever the beloved's temperament appeared somewhat displeased to me.]