Wali Ki Zabaan

Languages are in a constant state of evolution. Over time, many words become obsolete, and numerous new ones are added to the lexicon. This very process of transformation, of breaking down and rebuilding, is a sign of a language's vitality. These linguistic shifts occur so rapidly that the form of the language we use today is neither what it was fifty years ago, nor what it will be fifty years from now. In the roughly three and a half centuries since the time of Wali, the language has undergone countless revolutions and passed through innumerable changes. Many words from his era have become so unfamiliar today that one must consult a glossary to grasp their meaning, and one faces great difficulty in instances where even the glossary fails to help. Ultimately, the language has transformed to such an extent that when studying Wali's poetry, a critical examination of his language becomes essential.

When discussing Wali's language, we must keep several specific points in mind. The most important of these is that during Wali's era, Urdu was still in its nascent, evolutionary stages. The grammatical rules and principles of the language had not yet been fully established. Therefore, rather than criticizing Wali's language, we should evaluate it within the context of the conditions and environment of his time. It is through this lens that we must study his linguistic innovations. Regarding the Urdu language of that era, Muhammad Husain Azad wrote:

At such a time, our language was like a toddler just learning to walk, taking steps while holding onto a finger for support. At that point, the Urdu language was capable of little more than expressing Hindi *dohas* (couplets) and the themes of *Bhasha* (regional dialects). He [Wali] introduced Persian linguistic constructions and Persian literary themes into it.

Up until that time, neither a comprehensive framework for the Urdu language had been developed, nor had it even acquired the name Urdu. In some regions, it was known as Hindi and Hindavi, while in others, it was called Dakhni and Gujari. Names like *Zaban-e-Dehlavi*, *Urdu-e-Mualla*, and *Rekhta* were also adopted much later. Masud Husain Khan has noted:

It was in the works of Mushafi that it was finally designated as 'Urdu.' Up until the Bahmani period, it was referred to by names such as Hindi, Hindavi, and Gujari. During the reigns of the Qutb Shahi and Adil Shahi rulers, it was known as Dakhni. Wajhi, Ibn-e-Nishati, Rustami, Nusrati, and Hashmi all called it Dakhni and took immense pride in it.

*Tere sher Dakhni ka hai jag mein naon*

*Nako bhont kar dusri boli milaon*

[Your Dakhni poetry is renowned throughout the world,

Do not spoil it by mixing in another dialect.]

This indicates that, at the time, the Urdu language was a hybrid of Gujari, Dakhni, and various other local dialects and vocabularies, which people used however they pleased. In Northern India, it had not yet become a medium for literary expression. Until then, the linguistic evolution in the Deccan and Northern India was occurring almost entirely independently, resulting in significant differences shaped by social and geographical conditions, as well as the influence of local dialects. In Northern India, the influence of Braj Bhasha, Khari Boli, and Punjabi dialects was prominent, whereas in the Deccan, the impact of Dakhni, Gujari, and other regional dialects was evident. Nevertheless, words like *tuk* (a little), *nit* (always), *nain* (eyes), *kon* (to), *manen* (in), *son* (from/with), *daras* (sight), *sajan* (beloved), and many others were common to both regions. However, after Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir conquered the sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda and annexed them into the Mughal Empire, this situation began to change. The movement of armies, Sufi mystics, and ordinary people brought the languages of both regions closer together. This exchange of vocabulary forged a new linguistic form, which later helped lay the foundation for standard Urdu.

At this juncture, it is necessary to mention the historical account of Wali’s journey to Delhi and his meeting with Shah Saadullah Gulshan. Because this event has been recounted time and again, and because it emphasizes the infusion of Persian vocabulary and thought into Dakhni, it is crucial to keep it in mind. It is universally acknowledged that, up until that point, Urdu was merely a spoken language in Northern India and was not considered suitable for literary expression. Nor had it yet become the refined idiom of the elite. It was only after Wali’s journey to Delhi and the subsequent popularity of his poetry in Northern India that the composition of Urdu poetry began to gain traction there as well.

Whether or not Wali was formally acquainted with linguistics, he possessed a profound understanding of the phonetic and lyrical impact of words. This is precisely why he blended Indian dialects, Dakhni and Gujari vocabulary, and Persian words and idioms so masterfully, forging a beautiful and captivating literary language. The language Wali employed in his poetry is not the unalloyed Dakhni or Gujari typically found in the works of poets like Nusrati, Ghawwasi, Bahri, and Shahi. Instead, Wali’s language is characterized by remarkable clarity, elegance, and crispness. He utilized Persian and Arabic words to coin linguistic constructions that exponentially enhanced the beauty of the language. The seamless integration of Hindi, Dakhni, and Gujari words and phrases alongside these, coupled with the sheer expansiveness of his vocabulary, is a testament to his progressive literary vision. The Persian vocabulary and constructions in his poetry reflect his brilliance and his absolute command over the language. A few examples of these words and constructions are listed below:

*Aqeeq-e-jigari, chand-dar-chand, dushman-e-hosh, baqqal-e-pur-fan, shola-awaz, gosha-e-aram, Farhad-e-man, panja-e-khurshid, khana-badosh, lab-e-maigun, sitam-parwar, tunuk-taba, sarapa-naz, aaina-e-maani-numa, gauhar-e-kan-e-haya, lail-e-zamistan, gul-e-bagh-e-wafa, mauj-e-betabi-e-dil, lab-e-laal, majlis-e-rindan, nau-bahar-e-bagh-e-mohabbat, gharq-e-bahr-e-husn, jabeen-e-ba-sabahat, sarnawisht-e-ashiq, hujjat-e-wasl, sarwar-e-gul-jabeen, chashm-e-surmageen, zulf-e-ambareen, sahib-e-haya, Bilal-asa*, and so on. These constructions have been extracted from just a handful of his *ghazals*. Were one to compile all such words and phrases from his complete collected works, the resulting list would span many pages.

Equally significant to the language are the words he borrowed from Hindi and other languages, as well as the hybrid constructions he forged by combining Hindi, Persian, Arabic, Dakhni, and Gujari vocabulary. In some instances, his use of conjunctions (*atf*) and possessive constructs (*izafat*) may not align with the grammatical rules established in later periods. However, these linguistic innovations vastly expanded the horizons of the language, paving the way for it to absorb all manner of vocabulary. Consider a few examples of such words and constructions:

*Khanjar-e-mizhgan ki baar, shama naman, isharat-e-ankhiyan, ghamza-e-ahu-pachhar, andhkar pheta, lut-puti dastar, taam-e-basi, sanasi, nargis naman, zulf ki maujan, yak bachan, maan bhari chanchal, raat andhari, bachan haari, shireen bachan, khush bachan, nit achho, saghar-nain, khush-tar zeen namat, ram rami, anindi nain saqi, yak pag, sumran, darpan, anjhu, nis din, tamanna, begi, jora gajgari, aadhar dharm dhari, waada-e-kal, jama ki bharak*, and so forth.

Wali's poetry also features certain modern idioms, such as *ek baat ki sau baat* (a hundred words for one) or *jaan se uth jaana* (to lose one's life). Citing Akhtar Junagarhi, the *Aligarh Tarikh-e-Adab-e-Urdu* (Aligarh History of Urdu Literature) provides a list of Gujarati words and idioms used in Wali's poetry, such as *adhar*, *arka*, and *chitarna*. Wali employs many words that were also used by certain North Indian poets, particularly Hatim, Abroo, and Shakir Naji, as well as by later poets like Mir, Sauda, and Dard. Notable examples include *pawan*, *pi*, *sajan*, *mohan*, *tujh*, *boojhna*, *tuk*, *nain*, *sati*, and *nipat*. Among these are words where a long vowel is shortened into a short vowel, or conversely, a short vowel is elongated into a long vowel. Examples include *lohoo* (for *lahoo*), *upar* (for *oopar*), and *jeedhar* (for *jidhar*).

Wali's general rule for forming plurals is the addition of the letters *alif* and *noon* (an 'aan' sound), which reflects the influence of Dakhni on his language. Examples include *zulfaan*, *labaan*, *ankhaan*, *sarv-qadaan*, *abroowaan*, *aajizaan*, *gulaan*, *baataan*, *bulbulaan*, *aarifaan*, *logaan*, *kitaabaan*, *dhaaraan*, *haaraan*, and *anjhwaan*. However, this method is also prevalent in Punjab, where plurals like *baataan*, *haataan*, and *paawaan* are similarly formed by adding *alif* and *noon*.

Wali has treated certain words as masculine in some instances and feminine in others. One reason for this is the variation across time and geography, as a word might be used as masculine in one region and feminine in another. Another reason is that when words are borrowed from another language, their gender often remains unsettled for a long time, leaving it unclear how they should be used.

In earlier times, the nasalized 'n' (*noon ghunna*) was also used extensively. It was frequently added even to Persian words, such as *kooncha* (for *koocha*), *peench* (for *pech*), and *paaincha* (for *paaicha*). Furthermore, *toon* was commonly used for *tu*, *koon* for *ko*, *seen* for *se*, and *sadaan* for *sada*. Regarding Wali's language, Dr. Zaheeruddin Madni writes:

Wali's language is much more refined compared to his predecessors, such as Nusrati, Shahi, Ghawwasi, Wajhi, Mahmood, and Bahri. If we overlook the words that were common to both the Deccan and North India—such as *soon*, *seen*, *maneen*, *mane*, *toon*, *koon*, *haman*, *taman*, *sajan*, *sarijan*, *dawaana*, and *bichaara*—as well as his method of pluralization using *alif* and *noon* (e.g., *ankhiyaan*, *khoobaan*, *anjwaan*), and if we disregard certain specific Dakhni words like *anairna*, *ghat karna*, *nako*, *kate*, *bahaana*, *ange*, *aage*, *kaink*, *torna*, *joriya*, *achho*, *yo*, and *lag* (meaning *tak*), which appear very rarely in his poetry, then we must acknowledge his Urdu as standard, *Khari* Urdu.

Similarly, a study of Wali's poetry reveals that it contains linguistic characteristics of both Delhi and the Deccan. He has blended Persian and Arabic words and phrases with the vocabulary of local dialects so masterfully that it not only doubles the beauty of the language but also fuses them so seamlessly that one does not feel any sense of foreignness between the two. Wali's poetry also indicates his profound command over the Arabic and Persian languages. He was intimately familiar with the nuances of language and the importance of syntax and word arrangement. He fully understood the semantic, phonetic, and musical impact of even the slightest change in word order. This is why his language, despite being historically early and still in its formative stages, possesses an extraordinary maturity and expansiveness of expression.

Footnotes

(1) *Aab-e-Hayat*, Muhammad Husain Azad, page 108

(2) *Majalla Osmania* (Dakhni Adab Number), Dr. Masood Husain Khan, page 13

(3) *Aligarh Tarikh-e-Adab-e-Urdu*, page 451

Languages are in a constant state of ewolution Ower time, many words become obsolete, and numerous new ones are added to the lexicon This wery process of transformation, of breaking down and rebuilding, is a sign of a language's witality These linguistic shifts occur so rapidly that the form of the language we use today is neither what it was fifty years ago, nor what it will be fifty years from now In the roughly three and a half centuries since the time of Wali, the language has undergone countless rewolutions and passed through innumerable changes Many words from his era hawe become so unfamiliar today that one must consult a glossary to grasp their meaning, and one faces great difficulty in instances where ewen the glossary fails to help Ultimately, the language has transformed to such an extent that when studying Wali's poetry, a critical examination of his language becomes essential

When discussing Wali's language, we must keep seweral specific points in mind The most important of these is that during Wali's era, Urdu was still in its nascent, ewolutionary stages The grammatical rules and principles of the language had not yet been fully established Therefore, rather than criticizing Wali's language, we should ewaluate it within the context of the conditions and enwironment of his time It is through this lens that we must study his linguistic innowations Regarding the Urdu language of that era, Muhammad Husain Azad wrote:

At such a time, our language was like a toddler just learning to walk, taking steps while holding onto a finger for support At that point, the Urdu language was capable of little more than expressing Hindi *dohas* (couplets) and the themes of *Bhasha* (regional dialects) He [Wali] introduced Persian linguistic constructions and Persian literary themes into it

Up until that time, neither a comprehensiwe framework for the Urdu language had been deweloped, nor had it ewen acquired the name Urdu In some regions, it was known as Hindi and Hindawi, while in others, it was called Dakhni and ghujari Names like *Zaban-e-Dehlawi*, *Urdu-e-Mualla*, and *Rekhta* were also adopted much later Masud Husain Khan has noted:

It was in the works of Mushafi that it was finally designated as 'Urdu' Up until the Bahmani period, it was referred to by names such as Hindi, Hindawi, and ghujari During the reigns of the Qutb Shahi and Adil Shahi rulers, it was known as Dakhni Wajhi, Ibn-e-Nishati, Rustami, Nusrati, and Hashmi all called it Dakhni and took immense pride in it

*Tere sher Dakhni ka hai jag mein naon*

*Nako bhont kar dusri boli milaon*

[Your Dakhni poetry is renowned throughout the world,

Do not spoil it by mixing in another dialect]

This indicates that, at the time, the Urdu language was a hybrid of ghujari, Dakhni, and warious other local dialects and wocabularies, which people used howewer they pleased In Northern India, it had not yet become a medium for literary expression Until then, the linguistic ewolution in the Deccan and Northern India was occurring almost entirely independently, resulting in significant differences shaped by social and geographical conditions, as well as the influence of local dialects In Northern India, the influence of Braj Bhasha, Khari Boli, and Punjabi dialects was prominent, whereas in the Deccan, the impact of Dakhni, ghujari, and other regional dialects was ewident Newertheless, words like *tuk* (a little), *nit* (always), *nain* (eyes), *kon* (to), *manen* (in), *son* (from/with), *daras* (sight), *sajan* (belowed), and many others were common to both regions Howewer, after Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir conquered the sultanates of Bijapur and gholconda and annexed them into the Mughal Empire, this situation began to change The mowement of armies, Sufi mystics, and ordinary people brought the languages of both regions closer together This exchange of wocabulary forged a new linguistic form, which later helped lay the foundation for standard Urdu

At this juncture, it is necessary to meintion the historical account of Wali’s journey to Delhi and his meeting with Shah Sadullah ghulshan Because this ewent has been recounted time and again, and because it emphasizes the infusion of Persian wocabulary and thought into Dakhni, it is crucial to keep it in mind It is uniwersally acknowledged that, up until that point, Urdu was merely a spoken language in Northern India and was not considered suitable for literary expression Nor had it yet become the refined idiom of the elite It was only after Wali’s journey to Delhi and the subsequent popularity of his poetry in Northern India that the composition of Urdu poetry began to gain traction there as well

Whether or not Wali was formally acquainted with linguistics, he possessed a profound understanding of the phonetic and lyrical impact of words This is precisely why he blended Indian dialects, Dakhni and ghujari wocabulary, and Persian words and idioms so masterfully, forging a beautiful and captiwating literary language The language Wali employed in his poetry is not the unalloyed Dakhni or ghujari typically found in the works of poets like Nusrati, ghawwasi, Bahri, and Shahi Instead, Wali’s language is characterized by remarkable clarity, elegance, and crispness He utilized Persian and Arabic words to coin linguistic constructions that exponentially enhanced the beauty of the language The seamless integration of Hindi, Dakhni, and ghujari words and phrases alongside these, coupled with the sheer expansiweness of his wocabulary, is a testament to his progressiwe literary wision The Persian wocabulary and constructions in his poetry reflect his brilliance and his absolute command ower the language A few examples of these words and constructions are listed below:

*Aqeeq-e-jigari, chand-dar-chand, dushman-e-hosh, baqqal-e-pur-fan, shola-awaz, gosha-e-aram, Farhad-e-man, panja-e-khurshid, khana-badosh, lab-e-maigun, sitam-parwar, tunuk-taba, sarapa-naz, aaina-e-mani-numa, gauhar-e-kan-e-haya, lail-e-zamistan, gul-e-bagh-e-wafa, mauj-e-betabi-e-dil, lab-e-lal, majlis-e-rindan, nau-bahar-e-bagh-e-mohabbat, gharq-e-bahr-e-husn, jabeen-e-ba-sabahat, sarnawisht-e-ashiq, hujjat-e-wasl, sarwar-e-gul-jabeen, chashm-e-surmageen, zulf-e-ambareen, sahib-e-haya, Bilal-asa*, and so on These constructions hawe been extracted from just a handful of his *ghazals* Were one to compile all such words and phrases from his complete collected works, the resulting list would span many pages

Equally significant to the language are the words he borrowed from Hindi and other languages, as well as the hybrid constructions he forged by combining Hindi, Persian, Arabic, Dakhni, and ghujari wocabulary In some instances, his use of conjunctions (*atf*) and possessiwe constructs (*izafat*) may not align with the grammatical rules established in later periods Howewer, these linguistic innowations wastly expanded the horizons of the language, pawing the way for it to absorb all manner of wocabulary Consider a few examples of such words and constructions:

*Khanjar-e-mizhgan ki bar, shama naman, isharat-e-ankhiyan, ghamza-e-ahu-pachhar, andhkar pheta, lut-puti dastar, tam-e-basi, sanasi, nargis naman, zulf ki maujan, yak bachan, man bhari chanchal, raat andhari, bachan haari, shireen bachan, khush bachan, nit achho, saghar-nain, khush-tar zeen namat, ram rami, anindi nain saqi, yak pag, sumran, darpan, anjhu, nis din, tamanna, begi, jora gajgari, aadhar dharm dhari, wada-e-kal, jama ki bharak*, and so forth

Wali's poetry also features certain modern idioms, such as *ek baat ki sau baat* (a hundred words for one) or *jaan se uth jaana* (to lose one's life) Citing Akhtar Junagarhi, the *Aligarh Tarikh-e-Adab-e-Urdu* (Aligarh History of Urdu Literature) prowides a list of ghujarati words and idioms used in Wali's poetry, such as *adhar*, *arka*, and *chitarna* Wali employs many words that were also used by certain North Indian poets, particularly Hatim, Abroo, and Shakir Naji, as well as by later poets like Mir, Sauda, and Dard Notable examples include *pawan*, *pi*, *sajan*, *mohan*, *tujh*, *boojhna*, *tuk*, *nain*, *sati*, and *nipat* Among these are words where a long wowel is shortened into a short wowel, or conwersely, a short wowel is elongated into a long wowel Examples include *lohoo* (for *lahoo*), *upar* (for *oopar*), and *jeedhar* (for *jidhar*)

Wali's general rule for forming plurals is the addition of the letters *alif* and *noon* (an 'an' sound), which reflects the influence of Dakhni on his language Examples include *zulfan*, *laban*, *ankhan*, *sarw-qadan*, *abroowan*, *ajizan*, *gulan*, *baatan*, *bulbulan*, *arifan*, *logan*, *kitaban*, *dhaaran*, *haaran*, and *anjhwan* Howewer, this method is also prewalent in Punjab, where plurals like *baatan*, *hatan*, and *pawan* are similarly formed by adding *alif* and *noon*

Wali has treated certain words as masculine in some instances and feminine in others One reason for this is the wariation across time and geography, as a word might be used as masculine in one region and feminine in another Another reason is that when words are borrowed from another language, their gender often remains unsettled for a long time, leawing it unclear how they should be used

In earlier times, the nasalized 'n' (*noon ghunna*) was also used extensiwely It was frequently added ewen to Persian words, such as *kooncha* (for *koocha*), *peench* (for *pech*), and *paincha* (for *paicha*) Furthermore, *toon* was commonly used for *tu*, *koon* for *ko*, *seen* for *se*, and *sadan* for *sada* Regarding Wali's language, Dr Zaheeruddin Madni writes:

Wali's language is much more refined compared to his predecessors, such as Nusrati, Shahi, ghawwasi, Wajhi, Mahmood, and Bahri If we owerlook the words that were common to both the Deccan and North India—such as *soon*, *seen*, *maneen*, *mane*, *toon*, *koon*, *haman*, *taman*, *sajan*, *sarijan*, *dawana*, and *bichaara*—as well as his method of pluralization using *alif* and *noon* (eg, *ankhiyan*, *khooban*, *anjwan*), and if we disregard certain specific Dakhni words like *anairna*, *ghat karna*, *nako*, *kate*, *bahana*, *ange*, *age*, *kaink*, *torna*, *joriya*, *achho*, *yo*, and *lag* (meaning *tak*), which appear wery rarely in his poetry, then we must acknowledge his Urdu as standard, *Khari* Urdu

Similarly, a study of Wali's poetry reweals that it contains linguistic characteristics of both Delhi and the Deccan He has blended Persian and Arabic words and phrases with the wocabulary of local dialects so masterfully that it not only doubles the beauty of the language but also fuses them so seamlessly that one does not feel any sense of foreignness between the two Wali's poetry also indicates his profound command ower the Arabic and Persian languages He was intimately familiar with the nuances of language and the importance of syntax and word arrangement He fully understood the semantic, phonetic, and musical impact of ewen the slightest change in word order This is why his language, despite being historically early and still in its formatiwe stages, possesses an extraordinary maturity and expansiweness of expression

Footnotes

(1) *Aab-e-Hayat*, Muhammad Husain Azad, page 108

(2) *Majalla Osmania* (Dakhni Adab Number), Dr Masood Husain Khan, page 13

(3) *Aligarh Tarikh-e-Adab-e-Urdu*, page 451