Qadeem Hindi Stage

In the first part of this essay, we discussed in detail the origins of ancient Indian drama, its various types, plot structures, and some of its defining characteristics. The present article aims to provide information about the ancient Indian stage. It is unfortunate that, to date, nothing has been written on this subject in Urdu. Even Muhammad Umar and Noor Ilahi, in their valuable work Natak Sagar (which is undoubtedly the first book of its kind in Urdu), have written nothing in this regard. They concluded their discussion merely by stating, The truth is that the idea of constructing a theater was beyond the civilization of that era... The people's way of life and the country's climate did not necessitate any building that could serve as a theater.

It is surprising that such responsible scholars would pass such a cursory judgment on an important issue without careful consideration. Had they paid even the slightest attention to this matter, they would have realized their mistake. There is no denying that this subject requires extensive effort, research, and meticulous observation. However, there are numerous books in English that could have provided more than enough material, allowing this research to be conducted thoroughly and effectively. Unfortunately, the esteemed authors of Natak Sagar did not consider it worthwhile to take on this trouble. Nevertheless, with the help of several English and other texts, we now present this essay on the ancient Indian stage.

All matters regarding the structure, design, and management of the ancient Indian stage are detailed extensively in Bharata's Natya Shastra (twelve chapters of which have been translated into English) and in the commentaries of Abhinavagupta. The Sangita Ratnakara and the works of Matrugupta Acharya also provide substantial assistance.

Before examining the principles and structure of ancient Indian drama and stagecraft, it is important to keep in mind that ancient Indian civilization was, in every respect, the exact opposite of ancient Greek civilization. Greece was governed by a democracy, whereas India was under monarchical rule, and this single fact was the root of all their differences. Consequently, the atmosphere of ancient Athenian plays—the massive crowds of spectators, the appointment of judges, the distribution of prizes—was entirely absent from ancient Indian theater. In the fifth century BCE, the Athenian theater was structured such that the orchestra and stage were situated at the foot of the Acropolis, while the slope of the hill served as seating for the audience. In contrast, the ancient Indian theater was built within a section of the Maharaja's palace itself. While Greek performances could be watched by thousands of spectators, Indian plays were viewed only by a select few nobles and courtiers. These few points alone are enough to illustrate the stark differences between the two.

The second chapter of Bharata's masterpiece, the Natya Shastra, is filled with countless details regarding the theater building (Sangeet Shala). We will mention a few of the most important points here. The land selected for the theater building must be firm and thoroughly cleared of all brush and weeds. The boundaries must be carefully measured so that there is no discrepancy in the designated length and width. Laying the foundation stone was considered a grand religious ceremony, which included music, dancing, and a feast for Brahmins and Brahmacharis. The director of the theatrical company was required to observe a three-day fast.

Bharata categorized theaters into three types based on their size, but we will only discuss the standard-sized theater. This was the most commonly used type and was known as the Natya Veshman. It was a rectangular building, measuring 96 feet in length, 48 feet in width, and 20 to 25 feet in height. It featured a dome-shaped roof and walls made of solid lime plaster. The interior walls were adorned with colorful murals depicting lions, elephants, mountains, and lush green landscapes. It was mandatory to have four pillars at the four corners of the pavilion. These four pillars were dedicated to the four Hindu castes: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. A four-colored flag-like emblem was also painted on the curtain. These four colors were blue, red, yellow, and white, with each color representing a specific caste.

The presence of such purely democratic sentiments in the civilization of that era seems unusual. However, the underlying message was perhaps that, in the eyes of the Maharaja, all castes held an equal status; and in these royal pastimes related to a specific art form, people of all classes were considered equal participants. The Natya Veshman, or theater, was divided into two equal halves. The first half was called the Preksha Griha (Auditorium), which served as the seating area for the audience, and the second half was the Ranga Bhumi, or the stage. The layout of the ancient Indian theater building can be easily understood with the help of a diagram.

A glance at the diagram clearly shows that the Preksha Griha (auditorium) is a 48-by-48-foot square. The Ranga Bhumi (stage) is further divided into two equal sections. The rear section was dedicated to the actors for changing costumes and applying makeup; this was called the Nepathya Griha, or the green room. Between the Nepathya Griha and the rest of the Ranga Bhumi stood a wall adorned with various colorful motifs. This wall served as a permanent background, and the area in front of it was considered the actual Ranga Bhumi.

The Nepathya Griha (green room) was situated slightly lower than the main Ranga Bhumi (front stage), and one had to step down a stair or two to enter it. The main Ranga Bhumi was itself divided into two equal halves, although there was no physical partition between them. However, a curtain (Yavanika) separated these two sections. This curtain did not drop from above; instead, it typically parted in the middle and was drawn to the sides. For the sake of convenience, we will refer to the two conceptual sections created by this curtain as the front and back stage. On both flanks of the front stage were two 12-square-foot side wings, known as Mattavarani (Proscenia). Their purpose is quite obvious.

In ancient times, the Mattavarani (wings) were reserved for the orchestra and musicians. Occasionally, the prompter would also perform his duties from this area. The Sutradhara (manager and director) would also sometimes observe the actors' performances from here. Stage props and equipment were stored in these wings as well. It is worth noting that there was no drop scene or curtain at the very front of the stage; it remained permanently open to the audience.

The Preksha Griha, or auditorium, was constructed in the shape of a wide, tiered staircase so that even those seated in the last row could see clearly. The entire auditorium featured wooden, step-like tiers, with the first tier raised two and a half feet above the floor. Spectators would sit cross-legged on these tiers. Describing the seating arrangement, Raja S. M. Tagore writes, The eastern section of the concert hall was reserved for the Maharaja or the chief guest, who presided from a throne. Brahmins, poets, astrologers, and other scholars were seated to the Maharaja's right, occupying the southern part of the hall. Nobles, ministers, and state officials occupied the northern section, while the young princes, princesses, and children of the royal palace sat closest to the stage. The queens and other women of the royal harem were seated to the Maharaja's left. Mace-bearing ushers were stationed throughout the hall to maintain order and silence. Atheists, reformers, strangers, and suspicious individuals were strictly prohibited from entering the hall.

Professor Hordner provides a fascinating description of the staging of Shakuntala in Ujjain, fourteen hundred years ago. This account is also recorded in the Natak Sagar, from which we reproduce the following captivating excerpt:

Kalidasa has composed a new play, scheduled to premiere in the spring. The people of Ujjain are immensely proud of their sweet-spoken poet, declaring with deep devotion that no Indian play can rival Shakuntala in its linguistic fluency and emotional authenticity. Maharaja Vikramaditya has decreed that the play be staged within the royal palace. Everyone is eagerly awaiting the magical atmosphere that will be created by the era's finest actors, the master poet, and the enchanting beauty of spring.

The palace's concert hall, usually reserved for gatherings of music and dance, has been decorated for the performance of Shakuntala. Seating for the audience has been arranged in a spacious courtyard. Beautiful marble pillars encircle the courtyard, currently being draped with garlands of fresh flowers. Right in the center of the courtyard stands the royal canopy, its golden fringes creating a dazzling spectacle. The canopy is supported by six silver poles. The royal flag flutters beside the theater. The stage curtain is tied back with a precious chain of rubies and diamonds. This chain will be presented as a gift to the poet, for the Maharaja is a great patron of literature.

With the break of dawn, musical instruments begin to play behind the stage, and Maharaja Vikramaditya, wearing his crown and royal robes, makes his grand entrance surrounded by his retinue. Subordinate kings are seated to his right, while the Maharani and her maidens take their places to his left. The Maharani's personal attendant holds a golden flute and a bouquet of evergreen flowers, which will be presented to the poet laureate on the queen's behalf. Dark-skinned slaves, dressed in red uniforms with hanging purple waistbands, move about distributing fruits. Amidst this dark cloud, moon-faced women with fair necks, wearing pearl necklaces and tiaras, flash like lightning. Guests who have traveled from distant lands sit in their respective seats, engaged in conversation. State officials, religious leaders, scholars, and intellectuals—in short, the very soul of Ujjain's society is present in this assembly.

In one corner, a few statesmen are discussing strategies to suppress a rebellion in Nepal. In a quiet nook, the royal astrologer Varahamihira is deep in conversation with a white-bearded Iranian. The royal editor is handing over the final volume of a Sanskrit dictionary to his foreign friend, who has traveled from southern China specifically for this purpose... Suddenly, the intoxicating melodies of the sarangi, sitar, and flute rise in the air. The entire hall begins to sway in ecstasy to the enchanting tunes. A few melodious young men step forward to sing hymns, welcoming the Maharaja and the other dignitaries. Following this, the Sutradhara (stage manager) offers his blessings and, through a humorous poem, requests the audience's special attention. The royal chamberlain unfastens the jeweled chain and places it upon Kalidasa's head. The curtain parts in two. The hall echoes with the cheers of the audience. The play begins, and a profound silence falls over the gathering... and so on.

As far as set construction and stage machinery were concerned, the ancient Indian stage was largely unfamiliar with them. Although Bharata Muni mentions basic machines and small stage tricks, which were called Yantra, these were generally rare. However, various scenic backdrops were occasionally used.

Bharata Muni categorized stage properties (props), known as Pusta, into three types: Sandhima, which were items made from bamboo splints and covered with cloth or the skins of deer, leopards, and other animals; Vyajima, which were mechanical props operated with the help of a Yantra; and Veshtima, which were items made entirely of cloth. Weapons and similar items were not made of solid metal, but rather of wood and lac. It must always be remembered that the purpose of ancient Indian drama was simply to create Maya—an illusion—which is why they did not heavily rely on elaborate scenery or realistic props.

Regarding the actors' costumes, although it was essential that they conform to contemporary customs, certain specific types of attire became formally designated for performers. These costumes were brightly colored, dazzlingly vibrant, and heavily adorned with imitation gold and silver lace (gota kinari). The attire of kings, maharajas, and women included countless ornaments, but these were all made of wax or lac, covered with gold and silver foil so they would sparkle brilliantly under the lights. For makeup, or character transformation, materials like resin, gulal (colored powder), and mica were commonly used.

Performances were mostly held during festivals or weddings. The plays Ratnavali and Mudrarakshasa were both premiered during festivals. During the spring season, the festival of Kamadeva (the Indian Cupid) was specifically dedicated to theatrical performances. Similarly, the birth of a son to a maharaja or nobleman, a victory over an enemy, the signing of a peace treaty, or the construction of a new building were joyous occasions typically celebrated through drama. The afternoon was the designated time for these performances. Generally, a play would conclude in four to five hours. It is also worth noting that while in ancient Greece, two or three tragedies and perhaps a comedy would be performed in a single sitting, here, the same amount of time was devoted to just one complete and comprehensive play.

Actors and actresses were held in high esteem within society. Because they shared the company of kings and maharajas, their profession was deeply respected and honored. For a long time, the profession of acting remained exclusively reserved for Brahmins.

At this point, a comparison between ancient Indian theater and the English theater of Queen Elizabeth's era might seem out of place, yet there is a striking similarity between the two in several respects. The first point worth noting is the shared understanding in both traditions that the audience would use their imagination to envision the setting and surroundings of the story. In English theater, this was achieved by displaying small placards at the beginning of each scene, such as:

This is Athens.

A dark night, pouring rain.

The Forest of Arden.

The audience would read these cues and imagine the scene and atmosphere. In India, even such placards were unnecessary; instead, the Sutradhar (manager) would come forward and describe the setting of the scene in eloquent and articulate language. Secondly, the use of only a single curtain was customary in both theaters. The costumes in both traditions were vibrant and flashy. The language of the plays in both theaters was impassioned, full of idioms, and laden with complex metaphors. In England, female roles were played by boys, whereas here, they were played by women. Both also equally believed that divine forces would come to the aid of the hero or heroine in times of distress—and so on.

From this comparison between the ancient Indian stage and the Elizabethan stage, we can deduce that some of the practices prevalent in India during the fourth and fifth centuries BCE only appeared in England in the sixteenth century CE. Note the disparity!

Looking at the dramatic history of India, we are compelled to praise and admire the unparalleled civilization of ancient Indians, as well as their enviable intelligence and artistic brilliance. But how regrettable it is that, due to our lack of appreciation, stagnation, and apathy, we have turned all our ancient arts and sciences into mere myths of the past. Take drama, for instance. This art form is a purely Indian invention. Thousands of years ago, when the rest of the world was completely oblivious even to the name of drama, this art was so complete, organized, and systematic here that the dramatic history of the world cannot offer its equal. Yet today, we are dependent on English and other foreign languages to learn this very art. This is because we have cast aside the remarkable achievements and triumphs of our ancestors. We are ready to beg from foreign nations and foreign languages, but we consider it a disgrace to consult the accomplishments of our own forefathers.

Furthermore, it is not as if all ancient arts and sciences have perished. By the grace of God, it has not yet come to that. Most of these elements still exist, though due to our lack of appreciation and loss of aesthetic taste, their scattered fragments lie strewn about in a dilapidated state. A little attention from us could revive them anew. But who cares enough to take on this uninvited headache!

Footnotes

(1) It is also worth mentioning that, apart from the royal palaces, performances were held in every city and town during Yatra fairs and festivals. For instance, many of Bhavabhuti's plays were first performed in various cities on the occasion of such festivals.

(2) Hindu Drama, by Raja S. M. Tagore.

(3) The Indian Theatre, by E. P. Hordner.

In the first part of this essay, we discussed in detail the origins of ancient Indian drama, its warious types, plot structures, and some of its defining characteristics The present article aims to prowide information about the ancient Indian stage It is unfortunate that, to date, nothing has been written on this subject in Urdu Ewen Muhammad Umar and Noor Ilahi, in their waluable work Natak Sagar (which is undoubtedly the first book of its kind in Urdu), hawe written nothing in this regard They concluded their discussion merely by stating, The truth is that the idea of constructing a theater was beyond the ciwilization of that era The people's way of life and the country's climate did not necessitate any building that could serwe as a theater

It is surprising that such responsible scholars would pass such a cursory judgment on an important issue without careful consideration Had they paid ewen the slightest attention to this matter, they would hawe realized their mistake There is no denying that this subject requires extensiwe effort, research, and meticulous obserwation Howewer, there are numerous books in English that could hawe prowided more than enough material, allowing this research to be conducted thoroughly and effectiwely Unfortunately, the esteemed authors of Natak Sagar did not consider it worthwhile to take on this trouble Newertheless, with the help of seweral English and other texts, we now present this essay on the ancient Indian stage

All matters regarding the structure, design, and management of the ancient Indian stage are detailed extensiwely in Bharata's Natya Shastra (twelwe chapters of which hawe been translated into English) and in the commentaries of Abhinawagupta The Sangita Ratnakara and the works of Matrugupta Acharya also prowide substantial assistance

Before examining the principles and structure of ancient Indian drama and stagecraft, it is important to keep in mind that ancient Indian ciwilization was, in ewery respect, the exact opposite of ancient ghreek ciwilization ghreece was gowerned by a democracy, whereas India was under monarchical rule, and this single fact was the root of all their differences Consequently, the atmosphere of ancient Athenian plays—the massiwe crowds of spectators, the appointment of judges, the distribution of prizes—was entirely absent from ancient Indian theater In the fifth century BCE, the Athenian theater was structured such that the orchestra and stage were situated at the foot of the Acropolis, while the slope of the hill serwed as seating for the audience In contrast, the ancient Indian theater was built within a section of the Maharaja's palace itself While ghreek performances could be watched by thousands of spectators, Indian plays were wiewed only by a select few nobles and courtiers These few points alone are enough to illustrate the stark differences between the two

The second chapter of Bharata's masterpiece, the Natya Shastra, is filled with countless details regarding the theater building (Sangeet Shala) We will meintion a few of the most important points here The land selected for the theater building must be firm and thoroughly cleared of all brush and weeds The boundaries must be carefully measured so that there is no discrepancy in the designated length and width Laying the foundation stone was considered a grand religious ceremony, which included music, dancing, and a feast for Brahmins and Brahmacharis The director of the theatrical company was required to obserwe a three-day fast

Bharata categorized theaters into three types based on their size, but we will only discuss the standard-sized theater This was the most commonly used type and was known as the Natya Veshman It was a rectangular building, measuring 96 feet in length, 48 feet in width, and 20 to 25 feet in height It featured a dome-shaped roof and walls made of solid lime plaster The interior walls were adorned with colorful murals depicting lions, elephants, mountains, and lush green landscapes It was mandatory to hawe four pillars at the four corners of the pawilion These four pillars were dedicated to the four Hindu castes: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra A four-colored flag-like emblem was also painted on the curtain These four colors were blue, red, yellow, and white, with each color representing a specific caste

The presence of such purely democratic sentiments in the ciwilization of that era seems unusual Howewer, the underlying message was perhaps that, in the eyes of the Maharaja, all castes held an equal status; and in these royal pastimes related to a specific art form, people of all classes were considered equal participants The Natya Veshman, or theater, was diwided into two equal halwes The first half was called the Preksha ghriha (Auditorium), which serwed as the seating area for the audience, and the second half was the Ranga Bhumi, or the stage The layout of the ancient Indian theater building can be easily understood with the help of a diagram

A glance at the diagram clearly shows that the Preksha ghriha (auditorium) is a 48-by-48-foot square The Ranga Bhumi (stage) is further diwided into two equal sections The rear section was dedicated to the actors for changing costumes and applying makeup; this was called the Nepathya ghriha, or the green room Between the Nepathya ghriha and the rest of the Ranga Bhumi stood a wall adorned with warious colorful motifs This wall serwed as a permanent background, and the area in front of it was considered the actual Ranga Bhumi

The Nepathya ghriha (green room) was situated slightly lower than the main Ranga Bhumi (front stage), and one had to step down a stair or two to enter it The main Ranga Bhumi was itself diwided into two equal halwes, although there was no physical partition between them Howewer, a curtain (Yawanika) separated these two sections This curtain did not drop from abowe; instead, it typically parted in the middle and was drawn to the sides For the sake of conwenience, we will refer to the two conceptual sections created by this curtain as the front and back stage On both flanks of the front stage were two 12-square-foot side wings, known as Mattawarani (Proscenia) Their purpose is quite obwious

In ancient times, the Mattawarani (wings) were reserwed for the orchestra and musicians Occasionally, the prompter would also perform his duties from this area The Sutradhara (manager and director) would also sometimes obserwe the actors' performances from here Stage props and equipment were stored in these wings as well It is worth noting that there was no drop scene or curtain at the wery front of the stage; it remained permanently open to the audience

The Preksha ghriha, or auditorium, was constructed in the shape of a wide, tiered staircase so that ewen those seated in the last row could see clearly The entire auditorium featured wooden, step-like tiers, with the first tier raised two and a half feet abowe the floor Spectators would sit cross-legged on these tiers Describing the seating arrangement, Raja S M Tagore writes, The eastern section of the concert hall was reserwed for the Maharaja or the chief guest, who presided from a throne Brahmins, poets, astrologers, and other scholars were seated to the Maharaja's right, occupying the southern part of the hall Nobles, ministers, and state officials occupied the northern section, while the young princes, princesses, and children of the royal palace sat closest to the stage The queens and other women of the royal harem were seated to the Maharaja's left Mace-bearing ushers were stationed throughout the hall to maintain order and silence Atheists, reformers, strangers, and suspicious indiwiduals were strictly prohibited from entering the hall

Professor Hordner prowides a fascinating description of the staging of Shakuntala in Ujjain, fourteen hundred years ago This account is also recorded in the Natak Sagar, from which we reproduce the following captiwating excerpt:

Kalidasa has composed a new play, scheduled to premiere in the spring The people of Ujjain are immensely proud of their sweet-spoken poet, declaring with deep dewotion that no Indian play can riwal Shakuntala in its linguistic fluency and emotional authenticity Maharaja Vikramaditya has decreed that the play be staged within the royal palace Eweryone is eagerly awaiting the magical atmosphere that will be created by the era's finest actors, the master poet, and the enchanting beauty of spring

The palace's concert hall, usually reserwed for gatherings of music and dance, has been decorated for the performance of Shakuntala Seating for the audience has been arranged in a spacious courtyard Beautiful marble pillars encircle the courtyard, currently being draped with garlands of fresh flowers Right in the center of the courtyard stands the royal canopy, its golden fringes creating a dazzling spectacle The canopy is supported by six silwer poles The royal flag flutters beside the theater The stage curtain is tied back with a precious chain of rubies and diamonds This chain will be presented as a gift to the poet, for the Maharaja is a great patron of literature

With the break of dawn, musical instruments begin to play behind the stage, and Maharaja Vikramaditya, wearing his crown and royal robes, makes his grand entrance surrounded by his retinue Subordinate kings are seated to his right, while the Maharani and her maidens take their places to his left The Maharani's personal attendant holds a golden flute and a bouquet of ewergreen flowers, which will be presented to the poet laureate on the queen's behalf Dark-skinned slawes, dressed in red uniforms with hanging purple waistbands, mowe about distributing fruits Amidst this dark cloud, moon-faced women with fair necks, wearing pearl necklaces and tiaras, flash like lightning ghuests who hawe traweled from distant lands sit in their respectiwe seats, engaged in conwersation State officials, religious leaders, scholars, and intellectuals—in short, the wery soul of Ujjain's society is present in this assembly

In one corner, a few statesmen are discussing strategies to suppress a rebellion in Nepal In a quiet nook, the royal astrologer Varahamihira is deep in conwersation with a white-bearded Iranian The royal editor is handing ower the final wolume of a Sanskrit dictionary to his foreign friend, who has traweled from southern China specifically for this purpose Suddenly, the intoxicating melodies of the sarangi, sitar, and flute rise in the air The entire hall begins to sway in ecstasy to the enchanting tunes A few melodious young mein step forward to sing hymns, welcoming the Maharaja and the other dignitaries Following this, the Sutradhara (stage manager) offers his blessings and, through a humorous poem, requests the audience's special attention The royal chamberlain unfastens the jeweled chain and places it upon Kalidasa's head The curtain parts in two The hall echoes with the cheers of the audience The play begins, and a profound silence falls ower the gathering and so on

As far as set construction and stage machinery were concerned, the ancient Indian stage was largely unfamiliar with them Although Bharata Muni meintions basic machines and small stage tricks, which were called Yantra, these were generally rare Howewer, warious scenic backdrops were occasionally used

Bharata Muni categorized stage properties (props), known as Pusta, into three types: Sandhima, which were items made from bamboo splints and cowered with cloth or the skins of deer, leopards, and other animals; Vyajima, which were mechanical props operated with the help of a Yantra; and Veshtima, which were items made entirely of cloth Weapons and similar items were not made of solid metal, but rather of wood and lac It must always be remembered that the purpose of ancient Indian drama was simply to create Maya—an illusion—which is why they did not heawily rely on elaborate scenery or realistic props

Regarding the actors' costumes, although it was essential that they conform to contemporary customs, certain specific types of attire became formally designated for performers These costumes were brightly colored, dazzlingly wibrant, and heawily adorned with imitation gold and silwer lace (gota kinari) The attire of kings, maharajas, and women included countless ornaments, but these were all made of wax or lac, cowered with gold and silwer foil so they would sparkle brilliantly under the lights For makeup, or character transformation, materials like resin, gulal (colored powder), and mica were commonly used

Performances were mostly held during festiwals or weddings The plays Ratnawali and Mudrarakshasa were both premiered during festiwals During the spring season, the festiwal of Kamadewa (the Indian Cupid) was specifically dedicated to theatrical performances Similarly, the birth of a son to a maharaja or nobleman, a wictory ower an enemy, the signing of a peace treaty, or the construction of a new building were joyous occasions typically celebrated through drama The afternoon was the designated time for these performances ghenerally, a play would conclude in four to fiwe hours It is also worth noting that while in ancient ghreece, two or three tragedies and perhaps a comedy would be performed in a single sitting, here, the same amount of time was dewoted to just one complete and comprehensiwe play

Actors and actresses were held in high esteem within society Because they shared the company of kings and maharajas, their profession was deeply respected and honored For a long time, the profession of acting remained exclusiwely reserwed for Brahmins

At this point, a comparison between ancient Indian theater and the English theater of Queen Elizabeth's era might seem out of place, yet there is a striking similarity between the two in seweral respects The first point worth noting is the shared understanding in both traditions that the audience would use their imagination to enwision the setting and surroundings of the story In English theater, this was achiewed by displaying small placards at the beginning of each scene, such as:

This is Athens

A dark night, pouring rain

The Forest of Arden

The audience would read these cues and imagine the scene and atmosphere In India, ewen such placards were unnecessary; instead, the Sutradhar (manager) would come forward and describe the setting of the scene in eloquent and articulate language Secondly, the use of only a single curtain was customary in both theaters The costumes in both traditions were wibrant and flashy The language of the plays in both theaters was impassioned, full of idioms, and laden with complex metaphors In England, female roles were played by boys, whereas here, they were played by women Both also equally beliewed that diwine forces would come to the aid of the hero or heroine in times of distress—and so on

From this comparison between the ancient Indian stage and the Elizabethan stage, we can deduce that some of the practices prewalent in India during the fourth and fifth centuries BCE only appeared in England in the sixteenth century CE Note the disparity!

Looking at the dramatic history of India, we are compelled to praise and admire the unparalleled ciwilization of ancient Indians, as well as their enwiable intelligence and artistic brilliance But how regrettable it is that, due to our lack of appreciation, stagnation, and apathy, we hawe turned all our ancient arts and sciences into mere myths of the past Take drama, for instance This art form is a purely Indian inwention Thousands of years ago, when the rest of the world was completely obliwious ewen to the name of drama, this art was so complete, organized, and systematic here that the dramatic history of the world cannot offer its equal Yet today, we are dependent on English and other foreign languages to learn this wery art This is because we hawe cast aside the remarkable achiewements and triumphs of our ancestors We are ready to beg from foreign nations and foreign languages, but we consider it a disgrace to consult the accomplishments of our own forefathers

Furthermore, it is not as if all ancient arts and sciences hawe perished By the grace of ghod, it has not yet come to that Most of these elements still exist, though due to our lack of appreciation and loss of aesthetic taste, their scattered fragments lie strewn about in a dilapidated state A little attention from us could rewiwe them anew But who cares enough to take on this uninwited headache!

Footnotes

(1) It is also worth meintioning that, apart from the royal palaces, performances were held in ewery city and town during Yatra fairs and festiwals For instance, many of Bhawabhuti's plays were first performed in warious cities on the occasion of such festiwals

(2) Hindu Drama, by Raja S M Tagore

(3) The Indian Theatre, by E P Hordner