Shayari Aur Uryani

The concept of obscenity is largely relative. Something that appears obscene to a specific individual in a particular society might not seem so to someone from another society. This perception arises from the demands of specific circumstances and events, and it must be viewed within that very context. For example, consider the way Western women dress and the playful manner in which they walk through marketplaces; we attribute this to immodesty and look down upon such exposure. However, for the members of their own society, there is nothing objectionable about it. When we observe these women displaying their bodies—revealing the golden hue of their arms, the radiant glow of their rouged faces, and the prominent curves of their breasts—they themselves feel no self-consciousness whatsoever. Nor do the young men of that society experience the state of restless agitation that grips Indian youth the moment they lay eyes on such women. Because such scenes are absent from Indian society, the underlying sense of sexual deprivation creates a mercurial restlessness in every vein and fiber of the local youth... But that was a comparison between the East and the West. Look at the different regions within India itself! What is considered obscene in terms of behavior, mannerisms, and style in North India is not deemed objectionable by most tribes in Gujarat, Central India, and South India. The semi-nude attire worn by women in Gujarat is frowned upon by North Indians... No North Indian woman would look approvingly at the traditional clothing of women from the Gond and Bhil tribes, because, on the one hand, it leaves their bodies exposed, and on the other, it accentuates all their physical contours. Furthermore, there are certain tribes where young girls do not cover their breasts with anything. They remain exposed, and within their culture, this is not considered shameful at all... The same principle applies to the depiction of specific situations and emotional states. If painting a picture of certain circumstances is considered inappropriate in one era, it may not be viewed negatively in another. Those who oppose such depictions do not truly belong to the contemporary age; rather, they are people of bygone times who cannot keep pace with the changing tides of time and the shifting moods of circumstances. However, those who have advanced intellectually present these matters as if there is absolutely nothing objectionable in discussing them!

The concept of obscenity is intrinsically linked to the depiction of sexuality and its related states and situations. Wherever a sexual aspect becomes prominent, or anything is said regarding it, people perceive it as obscene. However, these views have not always remained static throughout the world. In fact, concepts regarding sexuality have changed in almost every era. If the expression of its various states was considered shameful in one age, it was presented openly and without hesitation in another... Centuries ago, when humanity was entirely new to this world, sexual relations were not considered the sin that we consider them to be today. On the contrary, the sexual act was viewed as something highly sacred and significant... And there are hundreds of examples where sexual organs, their worship, and the various states associated with them were given a religious hue. Briffault, in his essay Religion and Sex, expressed the view that all the world's religions have been associated with sexual manifestations in one form or another. People of ancient times were not willing to accept, even for a moment, that there was no connection between religion and sexual matters. In various parts of the world, these two elements meet at a confluence. In places like Japan, India, New Guinea, Polynesia, Greece, and Rome, these concepts are frequently intertwined. Briffault writes that from the time humans roamed and hunted like wild beasts, up until they began to sustain themselves through agriculture, there was a widespread tradition of music and dance that provoked sexual arousal and served as an allegory for the sexual act... He then elaborates extensively on the fact that in antiquity, the countries considered the most civilized were precisely where we see sexuality and religion embracing one another. The worship of sexuality played a role in the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Babylon, Greece, Rome, Asia Minor, and the regions surrounding the Mediterranean Sea... The reality was that they considered the sexual act to be the greatest means of progress and advancement. This concept had imbued it with an aura of sanctity in their minds. Therefore, the concept of sin associated with sexuality and the sexual act is nowhere to be found in their cultures. In ancient times, we frequently find mentions of serpent worship, and many writers on sexuality agree that this is a symbolic representation of the sexual act and the sexual organ. In India, the stories of the relationship between Lord Shiva and Parvati demonstrate that man, woman, and their sexual act cannot be separated in any way, nor is anything gained by concealing it. In many countries before the Christian era, there are mentions of deities associated with sexuality, whom the common people actively worshipped. In Rome, the god of sex was called Priapus. On the walls of the ruined Roman city of Pompeii, there are paintings depicting scenes of sacrifices being offered to this deity. In Central America, there is ample evidence that sexual organs were once considered sacred and blessed. Even among the Jews, there are certain examples indicating that they viewed sexual organs with reverence... In short, the worship of sex and sexual organs was common in ancient religions. The concepts of shame or sin had no place in it, and the individuals of those societies viewed these practices with the same reverence that religious people today view their own various rituals. The practice of sexual sacrifices was also widespread in the temples of ancient Egypt... Consequently, the greatest sacrifice offered by women to Aphrodite was surrendering their chastity and purity to the temple priests in her name, and the priests there had made this a means to satisfy their own sexual desires. From all these examples... the truth becomes evident that sexual matters were once deeply intertwined with religion, and they were not considered objectionable in the slightest. On the contrary, recognizing their significance, humanity began to worship them.

But just as many things in the world provoke a reaction, so did these ideas. These concepts and rituals could not continue in the same manner for long. The reason was that, initially, there was no element of deceit, treachery, or forgery involved in them. On the contrary, a certain simplicity and innocence governed their practice. Over time, however, they became distorted, and many people turned them into a means of satisfying their primal desires and indulging in hedonism. Gradually, the concept of debauchery took root within them, and its excess began to prove harmful to society as a whole. By the first century CE, these rituals had become highly distorted. Although they were still widely practiced, many people had begun to view them with disdain. Consequently, in the beginning, Christian priests played a major role in curbing them. However, in their efforts to eradicate these practices, they too became extremists. As a result, all religions that were prevalent before Christianity were deemed unholy by them. Since sexual acts were not considered evil in those earlier religions, Christian priests declared sexuality itself to be unholy and condemned it as a sin. As a reaction, their attitudes became extreme. They labeled every religion other than their own as profane; at the same time, they dismissed the significance of sexual acts and relationships, branding their practice—which had been common in those earlier religions—as shameful. Consequently, the works of all Christian writers became saturated with these ideas: that the sexual act or the depiction of various sexual states was a sin, that a woman's body was a curse for a man, and that women led men astray. If we examine such writings in the light of Freudian theory, we conclude that by suppressing these acts, they found a slight psychological release for their own sexual hunger, which was prevalent among them. In any case, this movement established various taboos regarding sexuality, which exist to this day. However, these taboos are not natural; rather, they are constructs of our own society.

Because the subject of sexuality holds great importance, every human being takes an interest in it. It is a different matter that, due to certain social constraints, one might not be willing to openly discuss or listen to it. Yet, even individuals in such a society take pleasure in reading books in private that discuss sexual matters. Since this instinct exerts the greatest influence over both the human heart and mind, it is essential for every person to acquire as much knowledge about it as possible. Those who consider it inappropriate to speak or hear about it are merely trying to deceive others, while they themselves enjoy it in private. H.R.L. Sheppard writes in Some of My Religion that there are certain social taboos which may not be pleasant to discuss, but which one also does not wish to forget. This simply means that thinking, reflecting, and taking an interest in this subject is an inherent part of human nature, no matter how much social censorship condemns it. This is why people of every nation and country, in every era, have taken an interest in it—sometimes secretly, and sometimes openly! Given the significance of sexual relations, the importance of sex education was also recognized in certain places. In fact, the practice of sex education can still be found among some primitive societies today. We are left astonished when Dr. Malinowski and Margaret Mead inform us that many primitive tribes used to impart sex education under the guise of religious rituals, and continue to do so today. In his biography of Lycurgus, Plutarch reveals the significant role that dance played in encouraging young people toward marriage and promoting their sexual health. He mentions certain rituals where men and women would appear naked in public, and these activities would foster feelings of love and a desire for marriage among them.

All these examples demonstrate that society's sexual censorship is not commendable, nor is it so natural that it cannot be amended. History shows that these norms have changed in every era. There was a time when sexual acts and reproductive organs were worshipped. Then came an era, during the early days of Christianity, when this was heavily condemned, and the act itself was declared abhorrent. As a result, the sexual act and the female body were deemed a curse for mankind. When a statement like it is good for a man not to touch a woman falls from the lips of Saint Paul, our astonishment knows no bounds. However, this era could not last forever either. Following this came a time when Christian priests began living with women in a platonic manner, where establishing sexual relations was strictly forbidden. Yet, it was during this very period that a large number of priests were caught on charges of sexual misconduct. Eventually, the tradition of monasteries emerged, where monks and nuns lived together. It is impossible for men and women to live together without sexual relations developing between them. Consequently, the same thing happened here; the actions of these individuals brought disgrace to the Church. Indeed, it is sexual censorship itself that leads to human immorality. If people were to live openly and in a completely natural manner, such issues would not arise. Keeping these ideas in mind, rebellions against these prevailing notions of censorship have frequently occurred. Thus, the first rebel against the Church in matters of sex was the English poet Blake, who, at the end of the eighteenth century, wholeheartedly opposed the Church's censorship. He argued that the sexual act—which is the most beautiful and pleasant act in the world—had been needlessly criminalized by religion. Later, by the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, philosophers, scientists, and writers had formed a formidable front against sexual censorship. The Sexual Reform Congress, which included some of the greatest minds in the world, further fueled this movement.

The ebb and flow of these theories regarding sexuality can also be found in literature and art. There is no literature or art in any country of the world that does not describe sexuality and its associated states and conditions. In fact, some believe that if one wishes to observe the various theories of sexuality, its history, and the fluctuations of its currents in any given era, the best method is to study and analyze the literature and art of that time. And this is entirely correct. Look at the literatures of different countries across various eras! You will see the unmasked reflections of the very theories of sexuality that were prevalent in those times. Perhaps the very first literary creation in the world was one that mentioned sexual relations and their various states... The sexual act and its ecstasy must have had such a profound impact on primitive and uncivilized humans that they were compelled to spontaneously express something about it in the most beautiful manner possible. Songs must have been composed detailing sexual matters and their euphoria... But that is a matter of a time whose foundations rest solely on conjecture. However, even later, when we begin to find the missing links of literary history, we see the influence of this fundamental human emotion at work at every step, in every genre of literature. Look at the ancient epics in literature; in all of them, you will inevitably find descriptions of women. There will certainly be mentions of her various physical features. You will undoubtedly see various depictions of the ecstasy that her existence brings about. In the mythology of every country, the element that most captures our attention is the description of this very subject, even though mythology is where the element of sanctity is most prominent... Among ancient civilizations, India, China, Greece, Rome, Egypt, and Babylon are particularly noteworthy. The masterpieces of the people of these regions, which have now achieved the status of classics, are not devoid of descriptions of the various states of sexuality. In all of them, we see the woman. And we also find descriptions of the worlds of joy and euphoria that nature has embedded within her being. Look from the eras of Kalidasa, Valmiki, Homer, Li Po, and Tu Fu, all the way to Goethe, Schiller, Shakespeare, and even centuries beyond them. In the works of every one of them, you will find elements that, to a great extent, introduce explicitness into their creations here and there.

Urdu poetry cannot be an exception to this either. In almost every era, there has been an abundance of this element within it. The ghazal, which constitutes a vast treasure of all Urdu poetry, literally means to converse with women. Consequently, in the ghazals of every era, one finds couplets that are explicit, where poets have openly discussed sexual matters. They all describe the woman and every single part of her body without any hesitation. Mu'amala-bandi (the poetic description of amorous encounters) is a special subject for many of them. They also relish describing the emotional and physical states that overcome men and women during their intimate relations. They do not even shy away from mentioning the states that precede the sexual act... In short, what state related to sexuality is there that is not described in their work? What is called obscenity today once used to bring the roofs down in mushairas (poetry symposiums) with thunderous applause... This, of course, is the description of natural matters, but among ghazal poets, one also finds mentions of unnatural matters where they appear sexually abnormal. For instance, the mention of amrad-parasti (the love of beardless boys) is present in the works of most of our classical poets. They take pleasure in describing the beauty of young boys and paint pictures of the restless states that overcome them in their separation. And some are so brazen that they do not even refrain from mentioning them by name. Therefore, there was once a formidable objection against ghazal poetry—which is still raised to some extent today—that it frequently contains descriptions of situations that are not commendable for human beings... But regardless, this element exists in classical Urdu poetry, and it can no longer be erased in any way...!

Tasawwuf (Sufism) is an important subject in classical poetry, and alongside Persian poetry, it holds considerable weight in Urdu poetry as well. The concept of Sufism leads us toward God. There should not be even a trace of worldly affairs, especially of a sexual nature, within it. Yet, whatever has been said regarding Sufism in classical poetry... wherever its secrets and mysteries have been unveiled, a sexual hue shines through... Whatever our poets have written on divine truth (haqiqat) and spiritual knowledge (ma'rifat) under the guise of Sufism is entirely dyed in the colors of worldly, metaphorical love (majaz). And if someone is unfamiliar with their symbolism, they would not be able to interpret these verses as anything other than worldly poetry, let alone verses expressing something detached from worldly affairs. In these verses too, the beauty of the beloved is mentioned. Sometimes her cheeks are described. Sometimes her eyes and eyebrows are praised. Sometimes a portrait of her cypress-like stature is painted. Sometimes her coquetry and grace are mentioned. However, these people derive an entirely different meaning from all these descriptions... and even the greatest men of God sway in spiritual ecstasy to them. Take the poetry of Hafez as an example, which today holds a special status in Sufi poetry. Yet, in his work, one frequently finds mentions of states that are entirely related to sexuality. Tell me, when he recites a couplet like this:

Mai-e-do-sala wa mashooq-e-charda sala

Hameen bas ast mara sohbat-e-sagheer-o-kabeer

[Two-year-old wine and a fourteen-year-old beloved,

This company of the small and the great is enough for me.]

...what is one supposed to understand? After all, how can this thought be given a Sufi coloring...? Not only this, but scores of such couplets can be found in the Diwan of Hafez... And why limit this to Hafez alone? This is the case with almost every Sufi poet in Urdu and Persian. The verses of many of them border on obscenity, even though they supposedly discuss the hidden secrets of Sufism! The reason for the prevalence of this element among the Sufis is that, due to living lives of seclusion and celibacy, most of them were victims of sexual starvation. They were accustomed to living in khanqahs (Sufi lodges). Therefore, their celibate lifestyle suppressed this natural urge, which compelled them to express their thoughts regarding divine truth in these very terms... and they did so with complete abandon. Among Urdu poets, Wali, Siraj, Mir, Mir Asar, Mir Dard, and Mazhar Jan-e-Janaan are considered excellent poets of Sufism. Yet, in the Sufi verses of all of them (with the exception of Mir Dard), a glimpse of this sexual hue is present. But this is not surprising. Sexual repression makes humans do strange things. Leaving aside Urdu poetry and Sufism for a moment, look at that era in France! When the women there used to sing these kinds of songs about Jesus Christ,

Praise to Jesus, Praise his power,

Praise his sweet allurements!

Praise to Jesus, when His goodness

Reduces me to wickedness,

Praise to Jesus when he says to me:

‘My sister, my dove, my beautiful one,’

Praise to Jesus in all my stops,

Praise to his amorous charms!

Praise to Jesus, when His mouth

Touches mine in a loving kiss!

Praise to Jesus when his gentle caresses

Overwhelm me with chaste joys!

Praise to Jesus when at my leisure

He allows me to kiss him.

Although this poem expresses devotion to Jesus Christ, a sexual undertone permeates it from beginning to end. This is the result of the sexual starvation that monasticism had created in France during a specific era. It is a universal truth of life that whatever is suppressed the most, surfaces with equal intensity. The same applies to the sexual instinct: the more one tries to suppress it, the more it will rise and manifest itself through alternative outlets. The sexual undertone present in the works of mystic poets exists for this very reason; bound by moral constraints and mental shackles, these poets could not openly express their sexual states. Consequently, their mystical expressions also took on a sexual hue, with some even bordering on obscenity. When I read Mir Asar's masnavi Khwab-o-Khayal (Dream and Imagination), I am astounded at how he managed to write all of it. He was, after all, a deeply pious man, a Sufi, and a devoted disciple and student of Khwaja Mir Dard. Yet, ultimately, he too was human. He possessed natural desires that surfaced after being suppressed, and their impact became evident in the form of Khwab-o-Khayal, which ultimately provided him with mental peace.

The expression of this instinct is also bound by the social environment. We must view the depiction of its various states against the backdrop of the social milieu. As times change, these ideas also shift, and driven by the demands of time and circumstance, their forms in poetry continually evolve. Human life itself is tethered to its social environment, compelling individuals to align their actions and behaviors with prevailing social ideologies. Since poetry is a reflection of society and its environment, it is inevitable that these various ideologies are unveiled within it. Consequently, different eras in every country yield different perspectives regarding the expression of sexual states. If society does not consider the expression of these states objectionable in the poetry and literature of one era, it may strictly censor them in another. In permissive eras, poets feel no hesitation in expressing such matters. They say whatever they wish to say with an open heart. And since their voice is the voice of the times, it cannot be silenced by anyone.

Examples of this can be found in poetry all over the world. When a society becomes hedonistic, and the goddess of luxury rules over everyone—high and low—the poetry of that era reflects the exact same hue. The element of pleasure-seeking is laid bare at every step. In such an era, poets speak of women and wine. While the deeper states of beauty and love might not be discussed in such an environment, the praise of a woman's body and the intoxication her existence brings are certainly described. This often leads to obscenity in many places. However, the individuals of that society do not consider it obscene, because they dwell in that very world day and night. They have grown accustomed to breathing in that environment.

Such eras have passed, and continue to pass, in the poetry of every country. Yet, this abundance is most visible in French poetry. There, poets openly mention those parts of a woman's body that arouse sexual stimulation. They then go on to say things that people in India might not be prepared to tolerate in the slightest. Sometimes they mention her breasts and their curves, and sometimes they instruct her to disrobe. There is a poem by Théophile Gautier titled The Rose-Coloured Gown, in which he has presented all these very things. At one point, he describes a woman's breasts as twin ivory globes, and elsewhere he says that although her gown looks beautiful on her body, it is still inappropriate because it conceals realities... and his eyes are desperate to see. Therefore, she should take off this dress and cast it aside, because there is an immense sweetness in the revelation of realities. This is not limited to Gautier alone; this is the case with most French poets. The sole reason for this is that they were nurtured in the lap of a society that was extremely hedonistic, where they felt no hesitation in saying such things. And not just in France, but such eras have come, and continue to come, in other countries as well.

Urdu poetry also went through an era when it enthusiastically embraced such themes. This was the time when the Kingdom of Awadh in Lucknow was at its zenith. The fame of the Nawabs' vibrant gatherings and their penchant for luxury had spread far and wide. In those days, the society there seemed obsessed with nothing but sexuality and its related matters. And how could it be otherwise? Life had taken a new turn, and hedonism now reigned supreme. Although women had still not achieved freedom, a substitute had emerged: entire neighborhoods were populated by courtesans. In the society of that era, these women held a special status. Even the most respectable and prominent families did not hesitate in the slightest to establish ties with them. Mothers themselves would make these arrangements for their young sons. The result of all this was exactly what one would expect: the literature and poetry of the time began to reflect this very atmosphere. Consequently, the beloved of almost every ghazal poet of that era was a courtesan. This is why these poets focused more on praising her superficial adornments, going to extraordinary lengths to extol her physical beauty and youth. However, the internal states of love, which are entirely connected to the heart, are noticeably absent from their work. In some instances, their penchant for sexual arousal leads them to say things that leave us utterly astounded. We are forced to wonder: was this truly the culture of that era? Is this how the standard-bearers of civilization behave? Even the greatest poets of the time, including Atish, could not escape this trend. Despite the generally composed nature of his poetry, it still contains a certain tone that he was compelled to adopt simply by virtue of breathing in that social environment. When even Atish could not keep his distance from it, what can be said of the minor poets? If the obscenity in their expression had been accompanied by subtlety, it might not have been objectionable. But they went so far that the poetry of most of them borders on sheer vulgarity. This is evident when they compose verses such as:

اے پری تو نے جو پہنی ہے سنہری انگیا

آج آتی ہے نظر سونے کی چڑیا مجھ کو

ناسخؔ

[Aye pari tu ne jo pehni hai sunehri angiya

Aaj aati hai nazar sone ki chiriya mujh ko]

(O fairy, since you have worn this golden bodice,

Today you look like a golden bird to me.)

— Nasikh

بوسہ بازی سے مری ہوتی ہے ایذا ان کو

منہ چھپاتے ہیں جو ہوتے ہیں مہاسے پیدا

آتشؔ

[Bosa baazi se meri hoti hai eeza un ko

Munh chhupate hain jo hote hain mahase paida]

(My kissing causes her distress,

She hides her face when pimples appear.)

— Atish

دوست کو لے کر بغل میں رات بھر سوتا ہوں میں

رشک ہے دشمن کو میرے طابع بیدار پر

آتشؔ

[Dost ko le kar baghal mein raat bhar sota hoon main

Rashk hai dushman ko mere taali-e-bedaar par]

(I sleep all night with my beloved in my embrace,

My enemy is envious of my awakened fortune.)

— Atish

وصل کی شب دل کے خوش کرنے کا ساماں کیجیے

خود بھی عریاں ہوجئے ان کو بھی عریاں کیجیے

آتشؔ

[Vasl ki shab dil ke khush karne ka saamaan kijiye

Khud bhi uryaan hojiye un ko bhi uryaan kijiye]

(On the night of union, make arrangements to please the heart,

Strip yourself naked, and strip her naked too.)

— Atish

اٹھ گئے ساقین جاناں سے جو شب کو پائنچے

اک دو شاخ نور کا محفل میں روشن ہوگیا

امانتؔ

[Uth gaye saaqain-e-jaanaan se jo shab ko paainche

Ik do-shaakh-e-noor ka mehfil mein roshan ho gaya]

(When the trouser legs lifted from the beloved's calves at night,

A two-branched candelabra of light illuminated the gathering.)

— Amanat

ہاتھ میں انگیا کی چڑیا آگئی

آج ہم طائر کو لائے دام میں

ناسخؔ

[Haath mein angiya ki chiriya aa gayi

Aaj hum taair ko laaye daam mein]

(The bird of the bodice has come into my hand,

Today I have brought the bird into my net.)

— Nasikh

کسی کے محرمِ آبِ رواں کی یاد آئی

حباب کے جو برابر کبھی حباب آیا

آتشؔ

[Kisi ke mehram-e-aab-e-ravaan ki yaad aayi

Hubaab ke jo barabar kabhi hubaab aaya]

(I was reminded of someone's flowing, translucent bodice,

Whenever a bubble appeared next to another bubble.)

— Atish

Reading such verses fills us with a sense of disgust. Nevertheless, these poets were the product of a specific era and a specific society, and therefore, they cannot be entirely blamed. We can, however, certainly say that none of these poets possessed a literary stature great enough to rise above this swamp. Yet, it was not merely the hedonistic society of the time that was at fault; the economic and financial conditions were also largely responsible. The poets of that era were deeply influenced by their environment. Even if they lacked a conscious realization, they certainly knew on a subconscious level that the foundations of their kingdom were built on sand. They were aware that the Marathas and the British were increasing their power day by day. While those forces were engaged in military conquests, here, royal palaces had taken the place of fortresses. They were also acutely aware of the chains that bound them so tightly. They simply lacked the strength to take control of the situation, because the internal conditions had deteriorated from bad to worse, making any remedy impossible. Personal malice, deceit, and treachery had seeped into the very veins and fibers of the empire. These circumstances forced them to seek an escape from reality. Consequently, their poetry is also characterized by a profound sense of escapism. They fled from life and sought refuge in the intoxicating embrace of women! They lost themselves in the euphoric waves of pure wine! They made their home amidst a cluster of hedonism and superficial charms! Having reached this point, their extremism pushed the boundaries of their poetry into outright vulgarity. This is why their poetry appears crude, ugly, and corrupted to us today. Yet, in those days, people adored the very verses that we would feel ashamed to repeat even in solitude today. In that era, if poetry lacked muamala-bandi (amorous banter) and the explicit mention of sexually arousing body parts, it was considered dry and tasteless. Such was the irony of the times!

In contrast to this, look at the poetry from the era of Mir and Sauda! There is certainly a mention of sexuality in their work as well, but it lacks the overt obscenity found in the poetry of Atish, Nasikh, and other poets of Lucknow. In the works of Mir, Sauda, and other poets of the Delhi School, one finds an elevated concept of beauty and love. They focus more on expressing internal emotional states. Their poetry does not dwell on superficial beauty or external conditions, which is why such explicit obscenity does not emerge in their work. This, too, was the product of a specific society. During the era in which Mir and Sauda lived, there were far more restrictions placed upon women; they were essentially confined to the prisons of their homes. Nor was there the abundance of courtesans that would later characterize Lucknow. For this reason, we detect a sense of sexual starvation in their poetry, characterized by a smoldering, suppressed intensity. The concepts of freedom and rebellion had not yet taken root; otherwise, they might have rebelled against their environment and expressed things that, while perhaps explicit, would have at least provided them with some psychological relief.

However, one inevitable consequence of these conditions was that references to amrad-parasti (the romantic inclination toward young, beardless boys) began to appear in poetry. My personal view is that this was not merely an imitation of Persian literary traditions, but rather a demand of the circumstances and events of the time. The practice of amrad-parasti undeniably existed in that society—no matter how much anyone might try to conceal it today, anyone who examines the era with a discerning eye will realize that this was certainly the case. Consequently, there was hardly a single poet of that era—with the exception of Mir Dard, for whom I have immense respect and whose work I consider to be exclusively Sufi poetry—who did not mention amrad-parasti in his verses. And since such verses are found openly in their collected works (diwans), it suggests that social censorship regarding this practice was not particularly strict at the time. Verses on these themes were recited openly in mushairas (poetry symposiums), and the audience would be moved to ecstasy by them. Furthermore, one does not find a sense of escapism in their work. This is because, despite having essentially laid down their arms, they were still actively engaged in the battlefield of life. They were backed by glorious traditions that continued to propel them forward. Although they had suffered defeat, and their empire was, in a true sense, confined merely to the Red Fort, they still believed that such a vast and magnificent empire could not be overthrown so easily. Therefore, their poetry also displays a certain degree of defiance and resilience. Yet, beneath this defiance lie the sounds of groans escaping from aching hearts, utterly shattered by their wounds. All of this, too, was the subtle handiwork of their time and environment.

This, of course, was an account of those poets of the era who belonged to the upper echelons of society. However, during this very same period, in the land of Agra, we encounter a poet who stands entirely apart from the rest. In his poetry, we witness a completely new style. He is the spokesperson of the common people. His poetry is brimming with life and the depiction of stark realities. There is absolutely no room for artificiality or pretension in his work. He was a man who mingled freely with everyone, from the elite to the ordinary masses. Consequently, his poetry contains vivid portraits of those very conditions and experiences. He did not merely write about a single aspect of their lives; rather, he wove all their struggles and issues into his poetry. Thus, we also find the mention of women in his work. There are detailed depictions of every single part of their bodies, as well as their coquetry and charm. He explores sexual desire and its various emotional states and conditions. Yet, while presenting all of this, he never once abandons realism. He experienced love, but not the kind of love where one must solely endure the bitter agonies of the night of separation, or where the very first step is to become a Majnun, wandering and sifting through the dust of deserts and wastelands. The most prominent feature of his concept of love is its sexual aspect. His beloved is a woman of the bazaar—a courtesan—whom he can visit to quench his thirst whenever he desires. He does not spend the dark nights enduring the soul-crushing moments of separation; instead, he might simply run into his beloved on the street, and his heart's desire is fulfilled. There is certainly an element of explicitness in the description of all these things, but because it is rooted in reality, we appreciate his work today. However, during his own time, he did not receive the same recognition as his contemporaries. Even a critic like Shefta refused to acknowledge him as a poet. The reality was that he had carved out a world for himself entirely separate from the upper classes, living his life like an ordinary man. This is precisely why his poetry reflects the psychological states of common people and paints pictures of the various facets of their lives. The manner in which he describes sexual desires is also, to some extent, plebeian, yet it contains a strong element of realism. His imagery feels vibrant, living, and breathing. And his works are the direct product of the political, social, and economic environment in which he lived. This poet was Nazeer Akbarabadi...!

Next, consider the era of the 1857 Rebellion! This was a time when Azad and Hali were delivering a message of revolution, and all of India was yearning to shed its old skin. The drive for reform is the most prominent feature of their movements. They wished to groom the tangled tresses of India, which, in those days, were indeed in desperate need of a comb. This was not limited to literature; a wave of reform had swept through every sphere of life. Politically, too, India now sought reform. Having laid down its arms on the battlefield, it had no other choice but to strive for maximum self-improvement under the shadow of its foreign rulers. Consequently, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s political movements came into being. The same occurred in literature: concerted efforts were made to eradicate the flaws that a chaotic environment had bred within it. Under such circumstances, it was impossible to present anything related to sexuality that bordered on obscenity or that might induce a sense of escapism among the masses. This is why Hali, the representative poet of that era, does write about beauty and love, but in a highly refined manner! He maintains a composed tone, characterized primarily by simplicity. Consequently, Hali did not endorse the themes that most poets had deemed acceptable up to that point. In other words, he did not look favorably upon obscene poetry. In him, the personas of a cleric and a poet merge, making him a highly esteemed figure in our literature. However, if we look beyond this group, we see that around the very same time, Dagh and Ameer Meenai were also holding their own literary gatherings. The ideas they were weaving into their poetry were entirely different from Hali’s. Dagh’s work is replete with descriptions of sexual experiences, and following his lead, Ameer Meenai also adopted the same style. Dagh, of course, was a man of the world, and he articulated all those realities that are intrinsically tied to human existence. But Ameer Meenai, despite being a devout man and a Sufi, wrote verses that in some places outdo even Dagh. What, then, is the reason for this duality within the same era? The truth is that the poets of both circles were influenced by their social environment according to their own distinct temperaments. Because the consciousness of the first group was more awakened, possessing a greater capacity for thought and comprehension, they did not seek an escape from life. The second group relied more on the heart than the mind. Fleeing from the harsh realities of life, they took refuge in the world of romance. They sought to forget the chaos that had engulfed their era by losing themselves in descriptions of beauty and sensual delights! Yet, this entire phenomenon was also a direct product of their social and economic environment.

Following this came the era surrounding the First World War. By this time, Western education had firmly taken root in India, and the people had begun to absorb Western influences in every sphere of life. Literature, too, could not escape this impact. Consequently, post-war Urdu poetry appears heavily influenced by Western poetry. However, the dominant tone of this era was the kind of romanticism associated with Shelley, Keats, and Byron. With the exception of Iqbal, whose poetry is purely philosophical reflection, all the poets of this period can be seen walking the vibrant highways of romance. And Josh leads them all. During this time, he wrote poems about a temple maiden (Pujaran), painted portraits of the Princess of the Jungle (Jangal ki Shehzadi), and wrote about the sweeper woman (Mehtarani) or the jamun-selling girls (Jamun Walian). Although the romantic element dominates all these works, they are not devoid of reality. He does not merely praise the beauty of the jamun-selling girls; towards the end, he also reveals a stark truth. That truth is that, because of them, he has often faced public disgrace during these harvest seasons:

Josh yeh kafir manazir hosh mein rakhte nahin

Aah in faslon mein aksar apni ruswai hui

[Josh, these intoxicating sights do not let one remain in their senses,

Ah, during these seasons, I have often faced disgrace.]

(Jamun Walian)

This, too, is a common reality of life, and an aspect of sexuality the depiction of which cannot be deemed a sin. The occurrence of such incidents is hardly something to be surprised about. In the world of the youth, such things happen every day. If they are articulated in a refined manner, what is the harm? However, in that era, such voices still seemed somewhat suppressed and muffled. Their expression had not yet acquired the sharpness and bitterness that would develop later on. The other poets who walked this path alongside Josh certainly possessed their own individuality, but they lacked the sheer audacity that we find scattered throughout Josh’s work. They all wrote about women, but in a traditional manner. If we look past their stylistic flair and diction, their depiction of the experiences of beauty and love does not seem to advance beyond the conventional themes already embedded in the ghazal. Most of them merely described female beauty; while a sexual undertone occasionally emerged, they did not present any profound reality. Josh, however, demonstrated immense courage in this regard. He paved a way for those who came after him—a path upon which they traveled far, very far, until they vanished from sight. Yet, they continued to be a thorn in the eyes of certain people.

Now, an entirely new era of Urdu poetry commenced, one that brought it much closer to realism. The age of exclusively romanticizing women had come to an end. Poetry had reached a new turning point. Young poets now began to openly discuss sexuality, its various psychological states, and the sensual pleasures derived from the female body. When they realized that this subject holds immense significance in human life and has countless effects on both the body and the mind, what reason was there to hesitate in presenting it? The poetry produced at this stage—and which continues to be produced—is often labeled as obscene. But can the mere mention of the female body render a work of art obscene? This logic is hard to comprehend. There was certainly a time when mental shackles were worn like a necklace by humanity. Man bowed before stones, trees, the moon, the stars, the sun, and the mountains, revering them all as deities. But as time passed, all these beliefs evolved. The notions he had so firmly established turned out to be superstitions, and nothing more. Gradually, the passage of time made human thought more scientific. The same applies to the discussion of the female body and sexuality. In certain eras, people did not look favorably upon such depictions. But the world cannot remain stagnant on a single path forever. The values of life are in a constant state of flux. Therefore, discussing sexuality and articulating its natural states is now a demand of the times, because the world has changed. Today, there is a need to analyze and reflect upon everything through a scientific lens, and anyone who refuses to do so has no right to live in this modern world.

The twentieth century holds great significance when it comes to the study of sexuality. During this era, the issue gained immense importance throughout Europe. Various European scientists, philosophers, physicians, and writers began to examine it. Even women were not left behind in this endeavor. Even the Church recognized its importance. Through their collective efforts, the mysteries and secrets of sexuality began to be openly unveiled. Among them, Havelock Ellis holds a highly prominent position. The publication of his book, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, created a sensation across Europe. Its first volume was banned in India, but America took no action against it; rather, it was welcomed there... Havelock Ellis drew attention to the importance of sexuality. He exposed the sexual manifestations present across various religions and nations, and he encouraged the youth to untangle the complexities of this issue... He writes that the sexual instinct is a flame that no one can truly explain. He further notes that not long ago, whenever love and romance were discussed as an art form, people's faces would flush with shame and modesty. But now, we must consider it a sacred duty. This subject should no longer be confined to poets; it is essential for everyone to reflect upon it, because it holds the secret to whether life will be pleasant or unpleasant.

In addition to Ellis, figures like James Hinton, Geddes, and Thomson also played a role in propagating these ideas. In Germany and France, scholars like Iwan Bloch, Krafft-Ebing, and Forel emerged, who openly debated sexual issues. The greatest and most renowned sexologist among them was Magnus Hirschfeld, who established the first institute for the study of sexuality in Germany. Hitler shut down this institute, and poor Hirschfeld was forced to flee Germany. In his presidential address at the Sexual Reform Congress in London, he clearly articulated that shame and silence are not virtues when it comes to sexuality. He stated, In the past, ignorance was mistaken for innocence, and silence was considered the best approach to sexual matters. But much has changed since then. Today, we fully realize that silence regarding sexuality is not innocence, but a crime. It is our sacred duty to break this silence as quickly as possible. Alongside them, Freud and Adler also began to publish and disseminate their theories. This brought forth a flood of revolution in the realm of sexuality that changed the landscape of the entire world. Philosophers also reflected on this subject; in this regard, names like Weininger, Keyserling, and Ouspensky can be mentioned...

Writers, too, could not remain unaffected by these ideas. D.H. Lawrence and James Joyce are particularly famous in this context. Lawrence was the most avant-garde among them all. His ideas are fully laid bare in his letters, but beyond those, his works Fantasia of the Unconscious, The Rainbow, and Lady Chatterley's Lover are also highly significant in this regard... In the preface to his book, he writes: I want every man and woman to think about sexuality with complete honesty and clarity. Even if we cannot act out what brings us sexual fulfillment, we can at least think about it sexually. All this talk about young girls and virginity is like a blank piece of paper; it is utterly foolish. A young girl and a young boy are a complex knot of sexual emotions and thoughts...!... Years of proper reflection and grappling with the issue of sex will eventually lead us where we want to go... that is, to the true concepts of chastity and purity. A place where our sexual thoughts and sexual acts will be in harmony, and will no longer conflict with one another...